Great Britain in the united states The British colonization of the Americas was the history of constitution of control, colony, and colonization of the continents of the Americas by England, Scotland and Great Britain ( after 1707 ). Colonization efforts began in the seventeenth hundred with failed attempts by England to establish permanent colonies in the North. The beginning permanent English colony was established in Jamestown, Virginia in 1607. approximately 30,000 algonquian peoples lived in the area at the fourth dimension. Over the next respective centuries more colonies were established in North America, Central America, South America, and the Caribbean. Though most british colonies in the Americas finally gained independence, some colonies have opted to remain under Britain ‘s jurisdiction as british Overseas Territories.
The first document settlement of Europeans in the Americas was established by Norse people led by Leif Erikson around 1000 AD in what is now Newfoundland, called Vinland by the Norse. Later european exploration of North America resumed with Christopher Columbus ‘s 1492 dispatch sponsored by Spain. english exploration began about a century belated. Sir Walter Raleigh established the ephemeral Roanoke Colony in 1585. The 1607 colony of the Jamestown colony grew into the Colony of Virginia and Virgineola ( settled unintentionally by the shipwreck of the Virginia Company ‘s Sea Venture in 1609 ) promptly renamed The Somers Isles ( though the older spanish name of Bermuda has resisted surrogate ). In 1620, a group of Puritans established a second permanent colony on the coast of Massachusetts. Several other english colonies were established in North America during the 17th and 18th centuries. With the mandate of a imperial lease, the Hudson ‘s Bay Company established the territory of Rupert ‘s Land in the Hudson Bay drain basin. The English besides established or conquered several colonies in the Caribbean, including Barbados and Jamaica. England captured the dutch colony of New Netherland in the Anglo-Dutch Wars of the mid-17th hundred, leaving North America divided amongst the English, Spanish, and french empires. After decades of warring with France, Britain took control of the french colony of Canada, american samoa well as several Caribbean territories, in 1763. With the aid of France and Spain, many of the north american colonies gained independence from Britain through victory in the american Revolutionary War, which ended in 1783. Historians refer to the british empire after 1783 as the “ moment british Empire ” ; this menstruation saw Britain increasingly focus on Asia and Africa alternatively of the Americas, and increasingly focus on the expansion of barter preferably than territorial possessions. however, Britain continued to colonize parts of the Americas in the nineteenth century, taking control of British Columbia and establishing the colonies of the Falkland Islands and British Honduras. Britain besides gained control of several colonies, including Trinidad and British Guiana, following the 1815 kill of France in the Napoleonic Wars. In the mid-19th hundred, Britain began the process of granting self-government to its remaining colonies in North America. Most of these colonies joined the Confederation of Canada in the 1860s or 1870s, though Newfoundland would not join Canada until 1949. Canada gained entire autonomy following the passage of the Statute of Westminster 1931, though it retained diverse ties to Britain and still recognizes the british monarch as forefront of express. Following the onset of the Cold War, most of the remaining british colonies in the Americas gained independence between 1962 and 1983. Many of the early british colonies are contribution of the Commonwealth of Nations, a political association chiefly consisting of erstwhile colonies of the british Empire .
setting : early exploration and colonization of the Americas [edit ]
By the end of the seventeenth century, the Iberian Union of Spain and Portugal had colonized much of the Americas, but other parts of the Americas had not yet been colonized by european powers Following the inaugural voyage of Christopher Columbus in 1492, Spain and Portugal established colonies in the New World, beginning the european colonization of the Americas. [ 1 ] France and England, the two other major powers of 15th-century Western Europe, employed explorers soon after the return of Columbus ‘s first voyage. In 1497, King Henry VII of England dispatched an expedition led by John Cabot to explore the coast of North America, but the lack of precious metals or other riches discouraged both the spanish and english from permanently settling in North America during the early seventeenth century. [ 2 ] later explorers such as Martin Frobisher and Henry Hudson sailed to the New World in search of a Northwest enactment between the Atlantic Ocean and Asia, but were ineffective to find a feasible route. [ 3 ] Europeans established fisheries in the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, and traded metallic element, glass, and fabric for food and fur, beginning the north american fur trade. [ 4 ] During mid-1585 Bernard Drake launched an excursion to Newfoundland which crippled the spanish and portuguese fish fleets there from which they never recovered. This would have consequences in terms of English colonial expansion and village. [ citation needed ] In the Caribbean Sea, English sailors defied spanish trade restrictions and preyed on spanish treasure ships. [ 5 ] The English colonization of America had been based on the English colonization of Ireland, specifically the Munster Plantation, England ‘s first colony, [ 6 ] using the same tactics as the Plantations of Ireland. Many of the early colonists of North America had their beginning in colonizing Ireland, including a group known as the West Country Men. When Sir Walter Raleigh landed in Virginia, he compared the Native Americans to the raving mad Irish. [ 7 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ] Both Roanoke and Jamestown had been based on the irish plantation model. [ 10 ] In the late one-sixteenth century, Protestant England became embroiled in a religious war with Catholic Spain. Seeking to weaken Spain ‘s economic and military world power, english privateers such as Francis Drake and Humphrey Gilbert harassed spanish ship. [ 11 ] Gilbert proposed the colonization of North America on the spanish model, with the goal of creating a profitable english empire that could besides serve as a base for the privateers. After Gilbert ‘s death, Walter Raleigh took up the induce of north american colonization, sponsoring an expedition of 500 men to Roanoke Island. In 1584, the colonists established the first permanent English colony in North America, [ 12 ] but the colonists were ailing prepared for liveliness in the New World, and by 1590, the colonists had disappeared. There are a variety of theories as to what happened to the colonists there. The most popular theory is that the colonists left in search of a new area to settle in the Chesapeake, leaving stragglers to integrate with local anesthetic native american kin. [ 13 ] A separate colonization attack in Newfoundland besides failed. [ 14 ] Despite the failure of these early colonies, the English remained matter to in the colonization of North America for economic and military reasons. [ 15 ]
early colonization, 1607–1630 [edit ]
Jamestown, the foremost permanent English settlement in North America, was established during the reign of King James I of England In 1606, King James I of England granted charters to both the Plymouth Company and the London Company for the purpose of establishing permanent settlements in North America. In 1607, the London Company established a permanent wave colony at Jamestown on the Chesapeake Bay, but the Plymouth Company ‘s Popham Colony proved ephemeral. approximately 30,000 algonquian peoples lived in the region at the time. [ 16 ] The colonists at Jamestown faced extreme adversity, and by 1617 there were merely 351 survivors out of the 1700 colonists who had been transported to Jamestown. [ 17 ] After the Virginians discovered the profitableness of growing tobacco, the settlement ‘s population boomed from 400 settlers in 1617 to 1240 settlers in 1622. The London Company was bankrupted in part due to frequent warring with nearby american Indians, leading the english pate to take direct command of the Colony of Virginia, as Jamestown and its wall environs became known. [ 18 ] In 1609, the Sea Venture, flagship of the English London Company, well known as the Virginia Company, bearing Admiral Sir George Somers and the new Lieutenant-Governor for Jamestown, Sir Thomas Gates, was measuredly driven onto the reef off the archipelago of Bermuda to prevent its foundering during a hurricane on the 25th of July. The 150 passengers and crowd built two newfangled ships, the Deliverance and Patience and most depart Bermuda again for Jamestown on 11 May, 1610. Two men remained behind, and were joined by a third base after the Patience returned again, then departed for England ( it had been meant to return to Jamestown after gathering more food in Bermuda ), ensuring that Bermuda remained settled, and in the possession of England and the London company from 1609 to 1612, when more settlers and the first Lieutenant-Governor arrived from England following the extension of the Royal Charter of the London Company to officially add Bermuda to the district of Virginia. The archipelago was formally named Virgineola, though this was soon changed to The Somers Isles, which remains an official name though the archipelago had already retentive been ill-famed as Bermuda, and the older spanish name has resisted surrogate. The Lieutenant-Governor and settlers who arrived in 1612 concisely settled on Smith ‘s Island, where the three left behind by the Sea Venture were thriving, before moving to St. George ‘s Island where they established the town of New London, which was soon renamed to St. George ‘s Town ( the beginning actual town successfully established by the English in the New World as Jamestown was very James Fort, a vestigial defensive structure, in 1612 ). [ 19 ] Bermuda was soon more populous, self-sufficient and booming than Jamestown and a second company, the Company of the City of London for the Plantacion of The Somers Isles ( better known as The Somers Isles Company ) was spun-off from the London Company in 1615, and continued to administer Bermuda after the London Company ‘s Royal Charter was revoked in 1624 ( The Somers Isles Company ‘s Royal Charter was similarly revoked in 1684 ). Bermuda pioneered tobacco cultivation as the engine for its economic increase, but as Virginia ‘s tobacco farming outstripped it in the 1620s, and new colonies in the West Indies besides emulated its tobacco industry, the price of bermudan tobacco fell and the colony became unprofitable for many of the company ‘s shareholders, who largely had remained in England while managers or tenants farmed their land in Bermuda with the labor of apprenticed servants. Bermuda ‘s House of Assembly held its first gear session in 1620 ( Virginia ‘s House of Burgesses having held its beginning session in 1619 ), but with no landowners resident in Bermuda there was consequently no property reservation, unlike the casing with the House of Commons. As the bottom fell out of tobacco, many absentee shareholders ( or Adventurers ) sold their shares to the absorb managers or tenants, with the agrarian industry promptly shifting towards class farms that grew subsistence crops rather of tobacco. Bermudians soon found they could sell their overindulgence foodstuffs in the West Indies where colonies like Barbados grew tobacco to the exclusion of subsistence crops. As the company ‘s magazine ship would not carry their food exports to the West Indies, Bermudians began to build their own ships from Bermuda cedar, developing the quick and agile Bermuda sloop and the Bermuda rig. Between the former 1610s and the american Revolution, the british shipped an estimated 50,000 to 120,000 convicts to their american colonies. [ 20 ] interim, the Plymouth Council for New England sponsored respective colonization projects, including a colony established by a group of English Puritans, known nowadays as the Pilgrims. [ 21 ] The Puritans embraced an intensely emotional form of Calvinist Protestantism and sought independence from the Church of England. [ 22 ] In 1620, the Mayflower transported the Pilgrims across the Atlantic, and the Pilgrims established Plymouth Colony in Cape Cod. The Pilgrims endured an extremely hard first winter, with roughly fifty of the one hundred colonists dying. In 1621, Plymouth Colony was able to establish an alliance with the nearby Wampanoag kin, which helped the Plymouth Colony adopt effective agricultural practices and engaged in the barter of fur and other materials. [ 23 ] Farther north, the English besides established Newfoundland Colony in 1610, which chiefly focused on gull fishing. [ 24 ] The Caribbean would provide some of England ‘s most significant and lucrative colonies, [ 25 ] but not before several attempts at colonization failed. An undertake to establish a colony in Guiana in 1604 lasted entirely two years and failed in its main objective to find gold deposits. [ 26 ] Colonies in St Lucia ( 1605 ) and Grenada ( 1609 ) besides quickly folded. [ 27 ] Encouraged by the success of Virginia, in 1627 King Charles I granted a charter to the Barbados Company for the settlement of the uninhabited Caribbean island of Barbados. early settlers failed in their attempts to cultivate tobacco, but found great achiever in growing boodle. [ 25 ]
english abroad possessions in 1700
West Indies colonies [edit ]
The success of colonization efforts in Barbados encouraged the constitution of more caribbean colonies, and by 1660 England had established Caribbean boodle colonies in St. Kitts, Antigua, Nevis, and Montserrat, [ 25 ] English colonization of the Bahamas began in 1648 after a Puritan group known as the Eleutheran Adventurers established a colony on the island of Eleuthera. [ citation needed ] England established another sugar colony in 1655 following the successful invasion of Jamaica during the Anglo-Spanish War. [ 28 ] Spain acknowledged english possession of Jamaica and the Caiman Islands in the 1670 Treaty of Madrid. [ 29 ] England captured Tortola from the dutch in 1670, and subsequently took self-control of the nearby islands of Anegada and Virgin Gorda ; these islands would late form the british Virgin Islands. [ citation needed ] During the seventeenth century, the boodle colonies adopted the system of sugar plantations successfully used by the Portuguese in Brazil, which depended on slave labor. [ 30 ] The english government valued the economic importance of these islands over that of New England. [ 31 ] Until the abolition of its slave trade in 1807, Britain was responsible for the transportation system of 3.5 million african slaves to the Americas, a third gear of all slaves transported across the Atlantic. [ 32 ] Many of the slaves were captured by the imperial african Company in West Africa, though others came from Madagascar. [ 33 ] These slaves soon came to form the majority of the population in Caribbean colonies like Barbados and Jamaica, where rigid slave codes were established partially to deter slave rebellions. [ 34 ]
establishment of the Thirteen Colonies [edit ]
New England Colonies [edit ]
Following the success of the Jamestown and Plymouth Colonies, respective more english groups established colonies in the region that became known as New England. In 1629, another group of Puritans led by John Winthrop established the Massachusetts Bay Colony, and by 1635 roughly ten-spot thousand english settlers lived in the region between the Connecticut River and the Kennebec River. [ 35 ] After defeating the Pequot in the Pequot War, Puritan settlers established the Connecticut Colony in the region the Pequots had once controlled. [ 36 ] The Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations was founded by Roger Williams, a Puritan drawing card who was expelled from the Massachusetts Bay Colony after he advocated for a formal separate with the Church of England. [ 37 ] As New England was a relatively cold and sterile region, the New England Colonies relied on fishing and long-distance barter to sustain the economy. [ 38 ] A “ History of New England ” would not be complete without discussing John Hull, the pine tree british shilling, his central function in the institution of the Massachusetts Bay Colony and the Old South Church. In 1652 the Massachusetts legislature authorized John Hull to produce neologism ( mintmaster ). “ The Hull Mint produced several denominations of silver coinage, including the pine corner ugandan shilling, for over 30 years until the political and economic situation made operating the batch no long practical. ” by and large political for Charles II deemed the “ Hull Mint ” high treachery in the United Kingdom which had a punishment of Hanging, drawing and quartering. “ On April 6, 1681, Edward Randolph ( colonial administrator ) petitioned the baron, informing him the colony was still pressing their own coins which he saw angstrom high gear treachery and believed it was adequate to void the charter. He asked that a writ of Quo warranto ( a legal action requiring the defendant to show what authority they have for exercising some right field, baron, or franchise they claim to hold ) be issued against Massachusetts for the violations. ” [ 39 ]
southerly Colonies [edit ]
In 1632, Cecil Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore founded the Province of Maryland to the north of Virginia. [ 40 ] Maryland and Virginia became known as the Chesapeake Colonies, and experienced alike immigration and economic activities. [ 41 ] Though Baltimore and his descendants intended for the colony to be a safety for Catholics, it attracted largely protestant church immigrants, many of whom scorned the Calvert family ‘s policy of religious toleration. [ 42 ] In the mid-17th hundred, the Chesapeake Colonies, inspired by the success of slavery in Barbados, began the mass import of african slaves. Though many early slaves finally gained their exemption, after 1662 Virginia adopted policies that passed enslaved status from mother to child and granted slave owners near-total domination of their homo property. [ 43 ] 640 miles East-South-East of Cape Hatteras, in the Virginia Company ‘s other former settlement, the Somers Isles, alias the Islands of Bermuda, where the by-product Somers Isles Company still administered, the caller and its shareholders in England entirely earned profits from the export of tobacco, placing them increasingly at odds with Bermudians for whom tobacco had become unprofitable to cultivate. As entirely those landowners who could attend the company ‘s annual meetings in England were permitted to vote on company policy, the company worked to suppress the developing maritime economy of the colonists and to force the production of tobacco, which required unsustainable farm practices as more was required to be produced to make up for the diminished value. As many of the class of moneyed businessmen who were adventurers in the company were aligned to the Parliamentary causal agent during the English Civil War, Bermuda was one of the colonies that sided with the Crown during the war, being the beginning to recognise Charles II after the execution of his beget. With control of their fabrication and the militia and volunteer coastal artillery, the Royalist majority deposed the company-appointed Governor ( by the 1630s, the company had ceased sending Governors to Bermuda and had alternatively appointed a succession of big Bermudians to the function, including religious Independent and Parliamentarian William Sayle ) by power of arms and elected John Trimingham to replace him. Many of Bermuda ‘s religious Independents, who had sided with Parliament, were forced into exile. Although some of the newer continental colonies settled largely by anti-episcopalian Protestants sided with Parliament during the war, Virginia and other colonies like Bermuda supported the Crown and were subjected to the measures laid out in An Act for prohibiting Trade with the Barbadoes, Virginia, Bermuda and Antego until Parliament was able to force them to acknowledge its reign. bermudan wrath at the policies of the Somers Isles Company ultimately saw them take their complaints to the Crown after The Restoration, leading to the Crown revoking the Royal Charter of the Somers Isles Company and taking over direct administration of Bermuda in 1684. From that date, Bermudians abandoned agribusiness, diversifying their nautical industry to occupy many niches of inter-colonial trade between North America and the West Indies. Bermudians circumscribed landmass and high parentage pace meant that a brace spring from the colony contributed about 10,000 settlers to other colonies, notably the southern continental colonies ( including Carolina Province, which was settled from Bermuda in 1670 ), a well as West amerind settlements, including the Providence Island colony in 1631, the Bahamas ( settled by Eleutheran Adventurers, Parliament-allied Civil War exiles from Bermuda, under William Sayle in the 1640s ), and the seasonal occupation of the Turks Islands from 1681. Encouraged by the apparent helplessness of spanish dominion in Florida, Barbadian planter John Colleton and seven other supporters of Charles II of England established the Province of Carolina in 1663. [ 44 ] Settlers in the Carolina Colony established two main population centers, with many Virginians settling in the union of the province and many English Barbadians settling in the southern port city of Charles Town. [ 45 ] In 1729, following the Yamasee War, Carolina was divided into the crown colonies of North Carolina and South Carolina. [ 46 ] The colonies of Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina ( a well as the Province of Georgia, which was established in 1732 ) became known as the Southern Colonies. [ 47 ] [ 48 ]
Middle Colonies [edit ]
Beginning in 1609, Dutch traders had established fur trading posts on the Hudson River, Delaware River, and Connecticut River, ultimately creating the dutch colony of New Netherland, with a capital at New Amsterdam. [ 49 ] In 1657, New Netherland expanded through conquest of New Sweden, a swedish colony centered in the Delaware Valley. [ 50 ] Despite commercial achiever, New Netherland failed to attract the lapp grade of settlement as the English colonies. [ 51 ] In 1664, during a serial of wars between the English and Dutch, English soldier Richard Nicolls captured New Netherland. [ 52 ] The Dutch concisely regained control of parts of New Netherland in the Third Anglo-Dutch War, but surrendered its claim to the district in the 1674 Treaty of Westminster, ending the dutch colonial presence in North America. [ 53 ] In 1664, the Duke of York, former known as James II of England, was granted manipulate of the English colonies north of the Delaware River. He created the Province of New York out of the former Dutch territory and renamed New Amsterdam as New York City. [ 54 ] He besides created the provinces of West Jersey and East Jersey out of early Dutch land situated to the west of New York City, giving the territories to John Berkeley and George Carteret. [ 55 ] East Jersey and West Jersey would later be unified as the Province of New Jersey in 1702. [ 56 ] Charles II rewarded William Penn, the son of identify Admiral William Penn, with the land situated between Maryland and the Jerseys. Penn named this country the Province of Pennsylvania. [ 57 ] Penn was besides granted a rent to the Delaware Colony, which gained its own legislature in 1701. [ 58 ] A dear Quaker, Penn sought to create a seaport of religious toleration in the New World. [ 58 ] Pennsylvania attracted Quakers and early settlers from across Europe, and the city of Philadelphia promptly emerged as a thrive port city. [ 59 ] With its fat and brassy land, Pennsylvania became one of the most attractive destinations for immigrants in the belated seventeenth hundred. [ 60 ] New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware became known as the Middle Colonies. [ 61 ]
Hudson ‘s Bay Company [edit ]
In 1670, Charles II incorporated by imperial charter the Hudson ‘s Bay Company ( HBC ), granting it a monopoly on the fur trade in the area known as Rupert ‘s Land. Forts and trade posts established by the HBC were frequently the national of attacks by the french. [ 62 ]
Darien schema [edit ]
In 1695, the Parliament of Scotland granted a lease to the Company of Scotland, which established a village in 1698 on the Isthmus of Panama. Besieged by neighbouring spanish colonists of New Granada, and afflicted by malaria, the colony was abandoned two years late. The Darien schema was a fiscal disaster for Scotland—a quarter of scots capital [ 63 ] was lost in the enterprise—and ended scottish hopes of establishing its own oversea empire. The sequence besides had major political consequences, persuading the governments of both England and Scotland of the merits of a union of countries, rather than just crowns. [ 64 ] This occurred in 1707 with the Treaty of Union, establishing the Kingdom of Great Britain .
expansion and Conflict, 1689–1763 [edit ]
settlement and expansion in North America [edit ]
After succeeding his buddy in 1685, King James II and his lieutenant, Edmund Andros, sought to assert the pate ‘s authority over colonial affairs. [ 65 ] James was deposed by the new joint monarchy of William and Mary in the Glorious Revolution, [ 66 ] but William and Mary quickly reinstated many of the James ‘s colonial policies, including the mercantilist Navigation Acts and the Board of Trade. [ 67 ] The Massachusetts Bay Colony, Plymouth Colony and the Province of Maine were incorporated into the Province of Massachusetts Bay, and New York and the Massachusetts Bay Colony were reorganized as royal colonies, with a governor appointed by the king. [ 68 ] Maryland, which had experienced a revolution against the Calvert syndicate, besides became a royal colony, though the Calverts retained much of their land and tax income in the colony. [ 69 ] even those colonies that retained their charters or proprietors were forced to assent to much greater imperial master than had existed before the 1690s. [ 70 ] Between immigration, the import of slaves, and natural population growth, the colonial population in British North America grew vastly in the eighteenth century. According to historian Alan Taylor, the population of the Thirteen Colonies ( the british North American colonies which would finally form the United States ) stood at 1.5 million in 1750. [ 71 ] More than ninety percentage of the colonists lived as farmers, though cities like Philadelphia, New York, and Boston flourished. [ 72 ] With the kill of the Dutch and the imposition of the Navigation Acts, the british colonies in North America became region of the global british deal network. The colonists traded foodstuffs, wood, tobacco, and diverse early resources for asian tea, West Indian coffee, and West indian boodle, among other items. [ 73 ] Native Americans far from the Atlantic slide supplied the Atlantic marketplace with beaver fur and deerskins, and sought to preserve their independence by maintaining a poise of office between the French and English. [ 74 ] By 1770, the economic output of the Thirteen Colonies made up forty percentage of the crude domestic product of the british Empire. [ 75 ] anterior to 1660, about all immigrants to the English colonies of North America had migrated freely, though most paid for their passage by becoming apprenticed servants. [ 76 ] Improved economic conditions and an facilitate of religious persecution in Europe made it increasingly difficult to recruit labor to the colonies in the 17th and 18th centuries. partially due to this deficit of spare department of labor, the population of slaves in British North America grew dramatically between 1680 and 1750 ; the increase was driven by a mixture of forced immigration and the replica of slaves. [ 77 ] In the Southern Colonies, which relied most heavily on slave british labour party, the slaves supported huge plantation economies lorded over by increasingly affluent elites. [ 78 ] By 1775, slaves made up one-fifth of the population of the Thirteen Colonies but less than ten percentage of the population of the Middle Colonies and New England Colonies. [ 79 ] Though a smaller proportion of the English population migrated to British North America after 1700, the colonies attracted modern immigrants from early european countries, [ 80 ] including catholic settlers from Ireland [ 81 ] and protestant Germans. [ 82 ] As the eighteenth century progressed, colonists began to settle far from the Atlantic coast. Pennsylvania, Virginia, Connecticut, and Maryland all lay call to the estate in the Ohio River valley, and the colonies engaged in a scramble to expand west. [ 83 ] Following the 1684 revocation of the Somers Isles Company ‘s Royal Charter, seafaring Bermudianses established an inter-colonial barter network, with Charleston, South Carolina ( settled from Bermuda in 1670 under William Sayle, and on the same latitude as Bermuda, although Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, is the nearest landfall to Bermuda ) forming a continental hub for their trade ( Bermuda itself produced only ships and seamen ). [ 84 ] The widespread activities and colony of Bermudians has resulted in many localities named after Bermuda dotting the map of North America .
Conflicts with the french and spanish [edit ]
After the end of the french and indian War in 1763, North America was dominated by the british and spanish Empires The Glorious Revolution and the succession of William III, who had long resisted french hegemony as the Stadtholder of the Dutch Republic, ensured that England and its colonies would come into battle with the french conglomerate of Louis XIV after 1689. [ 85 ] Under the leadership of Samuel de Champlain, the french had established Quebec City on the St Lawrence River in 1608, and it became the center of french colony of Canada. [ 86 ] France and England engaged in a proxy war via native american english allies during and after the Nine Years ‘ War, while the potent Iroquois declared their neutrality. [ 87 ] War between France and England continued in Queen Anne ‘s War, the north american english component of the larger War of the spanish Succession. In the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht, which ended the War of spanish Succession, the british won possession of the french territories of Newfoundland and Acadia, the latter of which was renamed Nova Scotia. [ 38 ] In the 1730s, James Oglethorpe proposed that the area south of the Carolinas be colonized to provide a buffer against spanish Florida, and he was part of a group of trustees that were granted irregular proprietorship over the Province of Georgia. Oglethorpe and his compatriots hoped to establish a utopian colony that banned slavery, but by 1750 the colony remained sparsely populated, and Georgia became a crown colony in 1752. [ 88 ] In 1754, the Ohio Company started to build a garrison at the confluence of the Allegheny River and the Monongahela River. A larger french force initially chased the Virginians away, but was forced to retreat after the Battle of Jumonville Glen. [ 89 ] After reports of the battle reached the french and british capitals, the Seven Years ‘ War broke out in 1756 ; the north american component of this war is known as the french and amerind War. [ 90 ] After the Duke of Newcastle returned to office as Prime Minister in 1757, he and his alien minister, William Pitt, devoted unprecedented fiscal resources to the transoceanic dispute. [ 91 ] The british won a series of victories after 1758, conquering much of New France by the end of 1760. Spain entered the war on France ‘s english in 1762 and promptly lost several american territories to Britain. [ 92 ] The 1763 Treaty of Paris ended the war, and France surrendered about all of the helping of New France to the east of the Mississippi River to the british. France individually ceded its lands west of the Mississippi River to Spain, and Spain ceded Florida to Britain. [ 93 ] With the newly acquired territories, the british created the provinces of East Florida, West Florida, and Quebec, all of which were placed under military governments. [ 94 ] In the Caribbean, Britain retained Grenada, St. Vincent, Dominica, and Tobago, but returned control of Martinique, Havana, and other colonial possessions to France or Spain. [ 95 ]
The Americans break away, 1763–1783 [edit ]
North America after the 1783 Treaty of Paris
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The british subjects of North America believed the oral british constitution protected their rights and that the governmental system, with the House of Commons, the House of Lords, and the sovereign sharing world power found an ideal symmetry among democracy, oligarchy, and absolutism. [ 96 ] however, the british were saddled with huge debts following the french and indian War. As much of the british debt had been generated by the defense of the colonies, british leaders felt that the colonies should contribute more funds, and they began imposing taxes such as the Sugar Act of 1764. [ 97 ] Increased british dominance of the Thirteen Colonies upset the colonists and upended the impression many colonists held : that they were equal partners in the british Empire. [ 98 ] meanwhile, seeking to avoid another expensive war with native Americans, Britain issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763, which restricted colony west of the appalachian Mountains. however it was effectively replaced five years former thanks to the Treaty of Fort Stanwix. [ 99 ] The Thirteen Colonies became increasingly divided between Patriots opposed to Parliamentary taxation without representation, Loyalists who supported the king. In the british colonies nearest to the Thirteen Colonies, however, protests were muted, as most colonists accepted the fresh taxes. These provinces had smaller populations, were largely dependent on the british military, and had less of a custom of self-government. [ 100 ] At the Battles of Lexington and Concord in April 1775, the Patriots repulsed a british force charged with seizing militia arsenals. [ 101 ] The Second Continental Congress assembled in May 1775 and sought to coordinate armed resistance to Britain. It established an impromptu government that recruited soldiers and printed its own money. Announcing a permanent wave break with Britain, the delegates adopted a Declaration of Independence on 4 July 1776 for the United States of America. [ 102 ] The French formed a military alliance with the United States in 1778 following the british defeat at the Battle of Saratoga. Spain joined France in holy order to regain Gibraltar from Britain. [ 103 ] A aggregate franco-american operation trapped a british invasion army at Yorktown, Virginia, forcing them to surrender in October 1781. [ 104 ] The resignation shocked Britain. The king wanted to keep crusade but he lost control condition of Parliament and peace negotiations began. [ 105 ] In the 1783 Treaty of Paris, Britain ceded all of its north american territory south of the Great Lakes, except for the two Florida colonies, which were ceded to Spain. [ 106 ] With their close ties of blood and trade with the continental colonies, specially Virginia and South Carolina, Bermudians leaned towards the rebels during the American War of Independence, supplying them with privateering ships and gunpowder, but the power of the Royal Navy on the surrounding Atlantic left no possibility of their joining the rebellion, and they finally availed themselves of the opportunities of privateering against their former kinsmen. Although much mistaken for being in the West Indies, Bermuda is nearer to Canada ( and was initially grouped within British North America, retaining close links specially with the Nova Scotia and Newfoundland until the continental colonies were confederated into Canada ) than to the West Indies, and the nearest landfall is North Carolina. Following the independence of the United States, this would make Bermuda of supreme importance to Britain ‘s strategic control of the region, including its ability to protect its shipping in the area and its ability to project its power against the Atlantic seaside of the United States, as was to be shown during the American War of 1812. Having defeated a combine Franco-Spanish naval pull at the decisive 1782 Battle of the Saintes, Britain retained control of Gibraltar and all its pre-war Caribbean possessions except for Tobago. [ 107 ] economically the fresh nation became a major trade spouse of Britain .
second gear british Empire, 1783–1945 [edit ]
The british Empire in 1921 The loss of a boastfully dowry of British America defined the transition between the “ beginning ” and “ second base ” empires, in which Britain shifted its attention away from the Americas to Asia, the Pacific, and late Africa. [ 108 ] Influenced by the ideas of Adam Smith, Britain besides shifted away from mercantile ideals and began to prioritize the expansion of craft rather than territorial possessions. [ 109 ] During the nineteenth hundred, some observers described Britain as having an “ unofficial ” empire based on the export of goods and fiscal investments around the earth, including the newly freelancer republics of Latin America. Though this unofficial empire did not require direct british political control, it frequently involved the use of gunboat diplomacy and military interposition to protect british investments and ensure the unblock flow of barter. [ 110 ] From 1793 to 1815, Britain was about constantly at war, first in the french Revolutionary Wars and then in the Napoleonic Wars. [ 111 ] During the wars, Britain took control of many french, spanish, and Dutch Caribbean colonies. [ 112 ] Tensions between Britain and the United States escalated during the Napoleonic Wars, as the United States took advantage of its disinterest to undercut the british embargo on French-controlled ports, and Britain tried to cut off that american trade with France. The Royal Navy, which was desperately unretentive of trail seamen and constantly losing deserters who sought better-paid oeuvre under less draconian discipline aboard American merchant vessels, boarded american ships to search for deserters, sometimes resulting in the Impressment of american sailors into the Royal Navy. The United States, at the same meter, coveted the acquisition of Canada, which Britain could ill afford to lose as its naval and merchant fleets had been constructed largely from american english forest before United States independence, and from canadian timber thereafter. Taking advantage of Britain ‘s absorption in its war with France, the United States began the American War of 1812 with the invasion of the Canadas, but the british Army mounted a successful defense with minimal regular forces, supported by militia and native allies, while the Royal Navy blockaded the United States of America ‘s Atlantic coastline from Bermuda, strangling its merchant barter, and carried out amphibious raids including the Chesapeake Campaign with its Burning of Washington. As the United States failed to make any gains before british victory against France in 1814 free british forces from Europe to be wielded against it, and as Britain had no draw a bead on in its war with its erstwhile colonies early than to defend its remaining continental territory, the war ended with the pre-war boundaries reaffirmed by the 1814 Treaty of Ghent, ensuring Canada ‘s future would be divide from that of the United States. [ 113 ] Following the final frustration of french Emperor Napoleon in 1815, Britain gained ownership of Trinidad, Tobago, British Guiana, and Saint Lucia, a well as other territories outside of the Western Hemisphere. [ 114 ] The Treaty of 1818 with the United States set a large assign of the Canada–United States molding at the 49th parallel and besides established a joint U.S.–British occupation of Oregon Country. [ 115 ] In the 1846 Oregon Treaty, the United States and Britain agreed to split Oregon Country along the 49th analogue north with the exception of Vancouver Island, which was assigned in its entirety to Britain. [ citation needed ] After warring throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in both Europe and the Americas, the british and french reached a last peace after 1815. Britain would fight alone one war ( the Crimean War ) against a european exponent during the remainder of the nineteenth hundred, and that war did not lead to territorial changes in the Americas. [ 116 ] however, the british Empire continued to engage in wars such as the First Opium War against China ; it besides put down rebellions such as the indian Rebellion of 1857, the canadian Rebellions of 1837–1838, and the Jamaican Morant Bay rebellion of 1865. [ 117 ] A hard abolition movement had emerged in the United Kingdom in the late-eighteenth century, and Britain abolished the slave craft in 1807. [ 118 ] In the mid-nineteenth century, the economies of the british Caribbean colonies would suffer as a leave of the Slavery Abolition Act 1833, which abolished slavery throughout the british Empire, and the 1846 Sugar Duties Act, which ended discriminatory tariffs for carbohydrate imports from the Caribbean. [ 119 ] To replace the labor of early slaves, british plantations on Trinidad and other parts of the Caribbean began to hire apprenticed servants from India and China. [ 120 ]
Establishing the district of Canada [edit ]
Despite its defeat in the american Revolutionary War and shift towards a newly mannequin of imperialism during the nineteenth hundred, [ 108 ] [ 109 ] the british Empire retained numerous colonies in the Americas after 1783. During and after the american Revolutionary War, between 40,000 and 100,000 defeated Loyalists migrated from the United States to Canada. [ 121 ] The 14,000 Loyalists who went to the Saint John and Saint Croix river valleys, then region of Nova Scotia, felt excessively far removed from the peasant government in Halifax, then London split off New Brunswick as a separate colony in 1784. [ 122 ] The Constitutional Act of 1791 created the provinces of Upper Canada ( chiefly English-speaking ) and Lower Canada ( chiefly French-speaking ) to defuse tensions between the french and british communities, and implemented governmental systems alike to those employed in Britain, with the intention of asserting imperial agency and not allowing the screen of popular control of government that was perceived to have led to the american Revolution. [ 123 ] In 1815, Lieutenant-General Sir George Prevost was Captain-General and Governor-in-Chief in and over the Provinces of Upper-Canada, Lower-Canada, Nova-Scotia, and New~Brunswick, and their several Dependencies, Vice-Admiral of the same, Lieutenant-General and Commander of all His Majesty’s Forces in the said Provinces of Lower Canada and Upper-Canada, Nova-Scotia and New-Brunswick, and their several Dependencies, and in the islands of Newfoundland, Prince Edward, Cape Breton and the Bermudas, &c. &c. &c. Beneath Prevost, the staff of the british Army in the Provinces of Nova-Scotia, New-Brunswick, and their Dependencies, including the Islands of Newfoundland, Cape Breton, Prince Edward and Bermuda were under the Command of Lieutenant-General Sir John Coape Sherbrooke. Below Sherbrooke, the Bermuda Garrison was under the immediate control of the Lieutenant- Governor of Bermuda, Major-General George Horsford ( although the Lieutenant-Governor of Bermuda was finally restored to a fully civil Governorship, in his military role as Commander-in-Chief of Bermuda he remained subordinate to the Commander-in-Chief in Halifax, and naval and cleric links between Bermuda the Maritimes besides remained ; The military links were severed by canadian confederation at the conclusion of the 1860s, which resulted in the removal of the british Army from Canada and its Commader-in-Chief from Halifax when the canadian Government took duty for the defense of Canada ; The naval links remained until the Royal Navy withdrew from Halifax in 1905, handing its dockyard there over to the Royal Canadian Navy ; The established Church of England in Bermuda, within which the Governor held office as Ordinary, remained linked to the colony of Newfoundland under the same Bishop until 1919 ). [ 124 ] In response to the Rebellions of 1837–1838, [ 123 ] Britain passed the Act of Union in 1840, which united Upper Canada and Lower Canada into the Province of Canada. creditworthy government was first granted to Nova Scotia in 1848, and was soon extended to the other british north american colonies. With the passage of the british North America Act, 1867 by the british Parliament, Upper and Lower Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia were formed into the confederation of Canada. [ 125 ] Rupert ‘s Land ( which was divided into Manitoba and the Northwest Territories ), british Columbia, and Prince Edward Island joined Canada by the end of 1873, but Newfoundland would not join Canada until 1949. [ citation needed ] Like other british dominions such as Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa, Canada enjoyed autonomy over its domestic affairs but recognized the british sovereign as head of state and cooperated closely with Britain on defense issues. [ 126 ] After the passage of the 1931 Statute of Westminster, [ 127 ] Canada and other dominions were amply independent of british legislative control ; they could nullify British laws and Britain could no long pass laws for them without their accept. [ 128 ] United States independence, and the closing of its ports to british trade, combined with growing peace in the region which reduced the risk to ship ( resulting in smaller evasive merchantmen, such as those that bermudan shipbuilders turned out, losing favor to larger clippers ), and the advent of alloy hulls and steam engines, were to slowly gag Bermuda ‘s nautical economy, while its newfound importance as a Royal Navy and british Army base from which the North America and West Indies Station could be controlled mean increasing interest from the british Government in its government. Bermuda was grouped with British North America, particularly Nova Scotia and Newfoundland ( its closest british neighbours ), following United States Independence. When war with France followed the french Revolution, a Royal Naval Dockyard was established at Bermuda in 1795, which was to alternate with Royal Naval Dockyard, Halifax ( Bermuda during the summers and Halifax during the winters ) as the Royal Navy headquarters and main infrastructure for the River St. Lawrence and Coast of America Station ( which was to become the North America Station in 1813, the North America and Lakes of Canada Station in 1816, the North America and Newfoundland Station in 1821, the North America and West Indies Station about 1820, and last the America and West Indies Station from 1915 to 1956 ) before becoming the year-round headquarters and independent base from about 1818. The regular army garrison ( established in 1701 but recluse in 1784 ) was re-established in 1794 and grew during the Nineteenth Century to be one of the british Army ‘s largest, relative to Bermuda ‘s size. The blockade of the Atlantic seaside ports of the United States and the Chesapeake Campaign ( including the Burning of Washington ) were orchestrated from Bermuda during the American War of 1812. Preparations for similar operations were carried out in Bermuda when the Trent Affair about brought Britain to war with the United States during the American Civil War ( Bermuda had already been serving as the primary tran-shipment point for British and European manufactured arms which were smuggled into Confederate ports, specially Charleston, South Carolina, by blockade runners ; cotton was brought out from the like ports by the barricade runners to be traded at Bermuda for the war materiel ), and Bermuda played significant roles ( as a naval al-qaeda, trans-Atlantic convoy forming-up point, as a connecting point in the Cable and Wireless Nova Scotia-to-British West Indies submarine cable cable, as a radio receiver station, and from the 1930s as a locate for airbases used as a stage compass point for trans-Atlantic flights and for operating anti-submarine air travel patrols over the North Atlantic ) in the Atlantic field of the First World War and in the Battle of the Atlantic during the second World War, when the already existing Royal Navy, british Army, and Royal Air Force bases were joined by a Royal Canadian Navy basis and naval and air travel bases of the allied United States. It remained a vital air out and naval nucleotide during the Cold War, with american and canadian bases existing alongside the british ones from the second World War until 1995 .
british Honduras and Falkland Islands [edit ]
In the early seventeenth hundred, english sailors had begun cutting logwood in parts of coastal Central America over which the Spanish exercised little control. By the early eighteenth century, a humble british settlement had been established on the Belize River, though the spanish refused to recognize british master over the area and frequently evicted british settlers. In the 1783 Treaty of Paris and the 1786 Convention of London, Spain gave Britain the proper to cut logwood and reddish brown in the sphere between the Hondo River and the Belize River, but Spain retained reign over this sphere. Following the 1850 Clayton–Bulwer Treaty with the United States, Britain agreed to evacuate its settlers from the Bay Islands and the Mosquito Coast, but it retained control of the liquidation on the Belize River. In 1862, Britain established the crown colony of the british Honduras at this localization. [ 129 ] The british beginning established a bearing on the Falkland Islands in 1765 but were compelled to withdraw for economic reasons related to the American War of Independence in 1774. [ 130 ] The islands continued to be used by british sealers and whalers, although the colony of Port Egmont was destroyed by the spanish in 1780. Argentina attempted to establish a colony in the ruins of the former spanish colonization of Puerto Soledad, which ended with the british return in 1833. The british governed the uninhabited South Georgia Island, which had been claimed by Captain James Cook in 1775, as a dependence of the Falkland Islands. [ 131 ]
decolonization and oversea territories, 1945-present [edit ]
successful independence movements [edit ]
The Commonwealth of Nations consists of early territories of the british Empire in the Americas and elsewhere With the onset of the Cold War in the late 1940s, the british government began to assemble plans for the independence of the empire ‘s colonies in Africa, Asia, and the Americas. british authorities initially planned for a three-decades-long action in which each colony would develop a autonomous and democratic fantan, but unrest and fears of communist percolation in the colonies encouraged the british to speed up the motion towards self-governance. [ 132 ] Compared to other european empires, which experienced wars of independence such as the Algerian War and the portuguese Colonial War, the british post-war work of decolonization in the Caribbean and elsewhere was relatively passive. [ 133 ] In an attempt to unite its Caribbean colonies, Britain established the West Indies Federation in 1958. The federation collapsed following the loss of its two largest members, Jamaica and Trinidad, each of which attained independence in 1962 ; Trinidad formed a union with Tobago to become the nation of Trinidad and Tobago. [ 134 ] The eastern Caribbean islands, a well as the Bahamas, gained independence in the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s. [ 134 ] Guyana achieved independence in 1966. Britain ‘s last colony on the american mainland, british Honduras, became a autonomous colony in 1964 and was renamed Belize in 1973, achieving broad independence in 1981. A challenge with Guatemala over claims to Belize was left unsolved. [ 135 ]
Remaining territories [edit ]
Though many of the Caribbean territories of the british Empire gained independence, Anguilla and the Turks and Caicos Islands opted to revert to British convention after they had already started on the path to independence. [ 136 ] The British Virgin Islands, Bermuda, the Cayman Islands, Montserrat, and the Falkland Islands besides remain under the jurisdiction of Britain. [ 137 ] In 1982, Britain defeated Argentina in the Falklands War, an undeclared war in which Argentina attempted to seize see of the Falkland Islands. [ 138 ] In 1983, the british Nationality Act 1981 renamed the existing british Colonies as “ british Dependent Territories ”, [ 1 ], abolished British Subject status, and stripped colonials of their full british Citizen of the United Kingdom and Colonies, replacing it with British Dependent Territories Citizenship, which entailed no right of dwelling or to work anywhere ( other categories with even fewer rights were created at the same clock, including british Overseas Citizen for former Citizens of the United Kingdom and Colonies born in ex-colonies ). The exceptions were the Gibraltarians ( permitted to retain british Nationality in order to retain Citizenship of the European Union ) and the Falkland Islanders, who were permitted to retain the like new British Citizenship that became the default citizenship for those from the United Kingdom and the Crown dependencies. As the Act was widely understand to have been passed in readiness for the 1997 handover of Hong Kong to the People ‘s Republic of China ( in order to prevent ethnic-Chinese british nationals from migrating to the United Kingdom ), and given the history of negligence and racism those colonies with goodly non-European ( to use the british Government ‘s parlance ) populations had endured from the british Government since the end of Empire, the lotion of the Act merely to those colonies in which the citizenship was changed to British Dependent Territories Citizenship has been perceived as a peculiarly crying case of the racism of the british Government. The strip of birth rights from at least some of the colonial CUKCs in 1968 and 1971, and the change of their citizenships in 1983, actually violated the rights granted them by Royal Charters at the establish of the colonies. Bermuda ( amply The Somers Isles or Islands of Bermuda ), by example, had been settled by the London Company ( which had been in occupation of the archipelago since the 1609 wreck of the Sea Venture ) in 1612, when it received its Third Royal Charter from King James I, amending the boundaries of the First Colony of Virginia far adequate across the Atlantic to include Bermuda. The citizenship rights guaranteed to settlers by King James I in the original Royal Charter of the 10 April, 1606, thereby applied to Bermudians :
Alsoe wee doe, for us, our heires and successors, declare by theise presentes that all and everie the parsons being our subjects which shall dwell and inhabit within everie or anie of the saide severall Colonies and plantacions and everie of theire children which shall happen to be borne within the limitts and precincts of the said severall Colonies and plantacions shall have and enjoy all liberties, franchises and immunites within anie of our other dominions to all intents and purposes as if they had been abiding and borne within this our realme of Englande or anie other of our saide dominions .
[ 141 ] These rights were confirmed in the Royal Charter granted to the London Company ‘s by-product, the company of the City of London for the Plantacion of The Somers Isles, in 1615 on Bermuda being separated from Virginia :
And wee department of energy for vs our heires and successors declare by these Pnts, that all and euery persons being our subjects which shall goe and inhabite wthin the said Somer Ilandes and every of their children and posterity which shall happen to bee digest within the limits thereof shall haue and enjoy all libertyes franchesies and immunities of release denizens and natural subjectes within any of our dominions to all intents and purposes, as if they had beene abiding and have a bun in the oven wthin this our Kingdome of England or in any other of our Dominions [ 142 ]
In regards to erstwhile CUKCs of St. Helena, Lord Beaumont of Whitley in the House of Lords debate on the British Overseas Territories Bill on the 10 July, 2001, stated :
citizenship was granted irrevocably by Charles I. It was taken aside, quite incorrectly, by Parliament in surrender to the largely racist opposition to immigration at the time. [ 143 ]
Some Conservative Party backbenchers stated that it was the unpublished intention of the conservative british Government to return to a single citizenship for the United Kingdom and all of the remaining territories once Hong Kong had been handed over to China. Whether this was so will never be known as by 1997 the Labour Party was in Government. The Labour Party had declared anterior to the election that the colonies had been ill-treated by the british Nationality Act 1981, and it had made a promise to return to a individual citizenship for the United Kingdom and the remaining territories contribution of its election manifesto. early matters took precession, however, and this commitment was not acted upon during Labour ‘s first term in Government. The House of Lords, in which many former colonial Governors sat, lost solitaire and tabled and passed its own bill, then handed it down to the House of Commons to confirm. As a leave, the british Dependent Territories were renamed the british Overseas Territories in 2002 ( the term dependent territory had caused much wrath in the former colonies, such as comfortable Bermuda that had been largely autonomous and self-governed for about four centuries, as it implied not lone that they were other than British, but that their kinship to Britain and to real British people was both inferior and parasitic ). [ 144 ] [ 145 ] [ 146 ] At the same time, although Labour had promised a return to a single citizenship for the United Kingdom, Crown dependencies, and all remaining territories, British Dependent Territories Citizenship, renamed British Overseas Territories Citizenship, remained the default citizenship for the territories, other than the Falkland Islands and Gibraltar ( for which British Citizenship is calm the default citizenship ). The bars to residence and work in the United Kingdom that had been raised against holders of British Dependent Territories Citizenship by The british Nationality Act 1981 were, however, removed, and British Citizenship was made attainable by merely obtaining a second base british passport with the citizenship recorded as British Citizen ( requiring a variety to passport legislation as anterior to 2002, it had been illegal to possess two british Passports ). [ 147 ] anterior to 2002, all british Passports obtained in a british Dependent Territory were of a design modified from those issued in the United Kingdom, lacking the European Union name on the battlefront cover, having the name of the specific territorial government noted on the front cover charge below “ british Passport ”, and having the request on the inside of the front binding normally issued by the Secretary of State on behalf of The Queen rather issued by the Governor of the district on behalf of The Queen. Although this design made it easier for United Kingdom Border Control to distinguish a colonial from a ‘real ‘ british citizen, these passports were issued within the district to the holder of any type of british citizenship with the appropriate citizenship stamped inwardly. The normal british passports issued in the United Kingdom and by british consulates in Commonwealth and alien countries were similarly issued to holders of any type of british citizenship with the appropriate citizenship, or citizenships, stamped inside. From 2002, the thereafter local anesthetic governments of the british Overseas Territories in which british Overseas Territories Citizenship was the default citizenship were no long allowed to issue or replace any british Passport except the type for their own territory only with british Overseas Territories Citizen recorded inwardly ( and a stamp from the local anesthetic government showing the holder has legal status as a local anesthetic ( in Bermuda, by exemplar, the postage records “ the holder is registered as a bermudan ” ), as neither british Dependent Territories Citizenship nor british Overseas Territories Citizenship actually entitles the holder to any more rights in any territory than in the United Kingdom, simply serving to enable colonials to be distinguished from real British people for the benefit of United Kingdom Border Control. Since 2002, only the United Kingdom Government has issued normal british Passports with the citizenship stamped as British Citizen. Since June, 2016, only the Passport Office in the United Kingdom is permitted to issue any type of british Passport. local governments of territories can silent accept pass applications, but must forward them to the Passport Office. This means that the territorial blueprint of british Passport is no longer available, with all passports issued since then being of the standard type issued in the United Kingdom, with the appropriate type of british Citizenship recorded inside ; a problem for Bermudians as they have constantly enjoyed free entry into the United States than early british Citizens, but the United States had updated its entry requirements ( prior to the 2001 terrorist attacks on New York City and Washington, D.C., Bermudians did not need a pass to enter the US, and Americans did not need a pass to enter Bermuda. Since then, anyone entering the US, including US citizens, must present a passport ) to specify that, in arrange to be admitted as a bermudan the pass must be of the territorial type specific to Bermuda, with the area code inside being that used for Bermuda as distinct from other parts of the british Realm, with the citizenship stamped as British Dependent Territories Citizenship or British Overseas Territories Citizenship, and the stamp from Bermuda Immigration showing the holder has bermudan status. From the point of view of Bermuda Immigration, alone the cast showing the holder has bermudan status indicates the holder is bermudan, and that can be entered into any type of british Passport with any type of british citizenship recorded, so the United States requirements are more rigorous than Bermuda ‘s, and impossible to meet with any british Passport issued to a bermudan since the end of June, 2016. [ 148 ] [ 149 ] [ 150 ] [ 151 ] The eleven inhabit territories are autonomous to varying degrees and are reliant on the UK for extraneous relations and defense. [ 152 ] Most former british colonies and protectorates are among the 52 member states of the Commonwealth of Nations, a non-political, voluntary association of adequate members, comprising a population of around 2.2 billion people. [ 153 ] Fifteen Commonwealth realms, including Canada and respective countries in the Caribbean, voluntarily continue to contribution the british monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, as their head of state of matter. [ 154 ] [ 155 ]
list of colonies [edit ]
former North American colonies [edit ]
canadian territories [edit ]
These colonies and territories ( known, together with Bermuda, as british North America following independence of the United States of America ) were confederated to form modern Canada between 1867 and 1873 unless otherwise noted :
thirteen Colonies [edit ]
The Thirteen Colonies, which became the master states of the United States following the 1781 ratification of the Articles of Confederation :
other north american colonies [edit ]
These colonies were acquired in 1763 and ceded to Spain in 1783 :
-
- Province of East Florida (from Spain, retroceded to Spain)
- Province of West Florida (from France as part of eastern French Louisiana, ceded to Spain)
erstwhile colonies in the Caribbean and South America [edit ]
These contemporary countries formed part of the british West Indies anterior to gaining independence during the twentieth century :
current territories [edit ]
These british Overseas Territories in the Americas remain under the jurisdiction of the United Kingdom :
See besides [edit ]
Notes [edit ]
References [edit ]
Works cited [edit ]
far reading [edit ]
Media related to British colonization of the Americas at Wikimedia Commons
Read more: Australia Maritime Strategy
