Libya – Wikipedia

Libya ( ; Arabic : ليبيا, romanized : Lībiyā ), formally the State of Libya ( Arabic : دولة ليبيا, romanized : Dawlat Lībiyā ), [ 7 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] is a country in the Maghreb area in North Africa. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Chad to the confederacy, Niger to the southwest, Algeria to the west, and Tunisia to the northwest. It has maritime borders with Malta, Greece, and Turkey in the easterly Mediterranean. Libya is made of three diachronic regions : Tripolitania, Fezzan, and Cyrenaica. With an area of about 700,000 square miles ( 1.8 million km2 ), it is the fourth-largest country in Africa and the Arab world, and the 16th-largest in the world. [ 11 ] Libya has the 10th-largest raise oil reserves in the universe. [ 12 ] The largest city and capital, Tripoli, is located in westerly Libya and contains over three million of Libya ‘s seven million people. [ 13 ] Libya has been inhabited by Berbers since the late Bronze Age as descendants from Iberomaurusian and Capsian cultures. [ 14 ] In ancient times the Phoenicians established city-states and trade posts in western Libya. Parts of Libya were variously ruled by Carthaginians, Persians, Egyptians and Macedonians then becoming partially of the Byzantine Empire. Libya was an early center of Christianity. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the area of Libya was largely occupied by the Vandals until the seventh hundred when invasions brought Islam to the region. In the sixteenth hundred, the spanish Empire and the Knights of St John occupied Tripoli until Ottoman rule began in 1551. Libya was involved in the Barbary Wars of the 18th and 19th centuries. Ottoman rule continued until the Italo-Turkish War which resulted in the italian occupation of Libya and the establishment of two colonies, italian Tripolitania and italian Cyrenaica ( 1911–1934 ), late unified in the italian Libya colony from 1934 to 1947.

During the second World War, Libya was an area of war in the north African Campaign. The italian population then went into decline. Libya became independent as a kingdom in 1951. A bloodless military coup d’etat in 1969, a alliance led by Muammar Gaddafi, overthrew King Idris I and created a democracy. [ 15 ] Gaddafi was frequently described by critics as a dictator, and was one of the earth ‘s longest serving non-royal leaders, ruling for 42 years. [ 16 ] He ruled until being overthrown and killed in the 2011 Libyan Civil War, with agency transferred to the General National Congress. By 2014 two equal authorities claimed to govern Libya, [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 19 ] destabilizing the country and leading to a second civil war, with parts of Libya burst between the Tobruk and Tripoli-based governments ampere well as diverse tribal and Islamist militias. [ 20 ] The two independent warring sides signed a permanent ceasefire on 23 October 2020 and a one government took authority. [ 21 ] Libya is a member of the United Nations ( since 1955 ), the Non-Aligned Movement, the Arab League, OIC and OPEC. The country ‘s official religion is Islam, with 96.6 % of the libyan population being Sunni Muslims .

etymology

archaeological site of Sabratha, Libya The origin of the name “ Libya ” first appeared in an inscription of Ramesses II, written as rbw in hieroglyphic. The name derives from a generalized identity given to a large conspiracy of ancient east “ libyan ” berbers, african people ( sulfur ) and tribes who lived around the alcoholic regions of Cyrenaica and Marmarica. An army of 40,000 men [ 22 ] and a conspiracy of tribes known as “ Great Chiefs of the Libu “ were led by King Meryey who fought a war against pharaoh Merneptah in class 5 ( 1208 BCE ). This conflict was mentioned in the Great Karnak Inscription in the western delta during the 5th and 6th years of his reign and resulted in a kill for Meryey. According to the Great Karnak Inscription, the military alliance comprised the Meshwesh, the Lukka, and the “ Sea Peoples ” known as the Ekwesh, Teresh, Shekelesh, and the Sherden. The Great karnak inscription reads :

“… the third season, saying: ‘The wretched, fallen chief of Libya, Meryey, son of Ded, has fallen upon the country of Tehenu with his bowmen — Sherden, Shekelesh, Ekwesh, Lukka, Teresh. Taking the best of every warrior and every man of war of his country. He has brought his wife and his children — leaders of the camp, and he has reached the western boundary in the fields of Perire.”

The modern name of “ Libya ” is an evolution of the “ Libu “ or “ Libúē “ name ( from Greek Λιβύη, Libyē ), broadly encompassing the people of Cyrenaica and Marmarica. The “Libúē” or “libu” name likely came to be used in the classical populace as an identity for the natives of the north african region. The mention was revived in 1934 for italian Libya from the ancient greek Λιβύη ( Libúē ). [ 23 ] It was intended to supplant terms applied to Ottoman Tripolitania, the coastal region of what is today Libya, having been ruled by the Ottoman Empire from 1551 to 1911 as the Eyalet of Tripolitania. The name “ Libya ” was brought back into use in 1903 by italian geographer Federico Minutilli. [ 24 ] Libya gained independence in 1951 as the United Libyan Kingdom ( المملكة الليبية المتحدة al-Mamlakah al-Lībiyyah al-Muttaḥidah ), changing its name to the Kingdom of Libya ( المملكة الليبية al-Mamlakah al-Lībiyyah ), literally “ libyan Kingdom ”, in 1963. [ citation needed ] Following a coup d’etat d’état led by Muammar Gaddafi in 1969, the name of the state was changed to the Libyan Arab Republic ( الجمهورية العربية الليبية al-Jumhūriyyah al-‘Arabiyyah al-Lībiyyah ). The official name was “ socialistic People ‘s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya ” from 1977 to 1986 ( الجماهيرية العربية الليبية الشعبية الاشتراكية ), and “ Great Socialist People ‘s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya ” [ 25 ] ( الجماهيرية العربية الليبية الشعبية الاشتراكية العظمى, [ 26 ] al-Jamāhīriyyah al-‘Arabiyyah al-Lībiyyah ash-Sha‘biyyah al-Ishtirākiyyah al-‘Udmá ( help · information ) ) from 1986 to 2011. The National Transitional Council, established in 2011, referred to the state as plainly “ Libya ”. The UN formally recognized the area as “ Libya ” in September 2011 [ 27 ] based on a request from the Permanent Mission of Libya citing the libyan interim Constitutional Declaration of 3 August 2011. In November 2011, the ISO 3166-1 was altered to reflect the new country name “ Libya ” in English, “Libye (la)” in French. [ 28 ] In December 2017 the Permanent Mission of Libya to the United Nations informed the United Nations that the area ‘s official name was henceforth the “ State of Libya ” ; “ Libya ” remained the official unretentive form, and the area continued to be listed under “ L ” in alphabetic lists. [ 29 ]

history

Ancient Libya

The coastal plain of Libya was inhabited by Neolithic peoples from american samoa early as 8000 BC. The afroasiatic ancestors of the Berber people are assumed to have spread into the area by the Late Bronze Age. The earliest known name of such a kin was the Garamantes, based in Germa. The Phoenicians were the foremost to establish trading posts in Libya. [ 30 ] By the fifth century BC, the greatest of the phoenician colonies, Carthage, had extended its hegemony across much of North Africa, where a distinctive civilization, known as Punic, came into being. In 630 BC, the ancient Greeks colonized the area around Barca in Eastern Libya and founded the city of Cyrene. [ 31 ] Within 200 years, four more significant greek cities were established in the area that became known as Cyrenaica. [ 32 ] In 525 BC the persian army of Cambyses II overrun Cyrenaica, which for the adjacent two centuries remained under Persian or egyptian rule. Alexander the Great was greeted by the Greeks when he entered Cyrenaica in 331 BC, and Eastern Libya again fell under the control of the Greeks, this time as part of the Ptolemaic Kingdom. After the fall of Carthage the Romans did not immediately fill Tripolitania ( the region around Tripoli ), but left it alternatively under command of the kings of Numidia, until the coastal cities asked and obtained its protective covering. [ 33 ] Ptolemy Apion, the stopping point greek ruler, bequeathed Cyrenaica to Rome, which formally annexed the region in 74 BC and joined it to Crete as a Roman province. As part of the Africa Nova state, Tripolitania was booming, [ 33 ] and reached a aureate long time in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, when the city of Leptis Magna, family to the Severan dynasty, was at its height. [ 33 ] On the Eastern side, Cyrenaica ‘s first gear christian communities were established by the time of the Emperor Claudius. [ 34 ] It was heavily devastated during the Kitos War [ 35 ] and about depopulated of Greeks and Jews alike. [ 36 ] Although repopulated by Trajan with military colonies, [ 35 ] from then started its worsen. [ 34 ] Libya was early to convert to Nicene Christianity and was the home of Pope Victor I ; however, Libya was besides family to many non-Nicene varieties of early Christianity, such as Arianism and Donatism .
The descent of the Roman Empire saw the classical cities fall into ruin, a process hastened by the Vandals ‘ destructive sweep through North Africa in the fifth hundred. When the Empire returned ( now as East Romans ) as separate of Justinian ‘s reconquests of the sixth hundred, efforts were made to strengthen the old cities, but it was merely a last pant before they collapsed into neglect. Cyrenaica, which had remained an outpost of the Byzantine Empire during the Vandal period, besides took on the characteristics of an arm camp. unpopular Byzantine governors imposed burdensome taxation to meet military costs, while the towns and public services—including the water system—were left to decay. By the begin of the seventh century, Byzantine control over the region was weak, Berber rebellions were becoming more frequent, and there was little to oppose Muslim invasion. [ 37 ]

Islamic Libya

Under the command of ‘Amr ibn al-‘As, the Rashidun army conquered Cyrenaica. [ 38 ] In 647 an army led by Abdullah ibn Saad took Tripoli from the Byzantines definitively. [ 38 ] The Fezzan was conquered by Uqba ibn Nafi in 663. The Berber tribe of the backwoods accepted Islam, however they resisted Arab political govern. [ 39 ] For the future several decades, Libya was under the horizon of the Umayyad Caliph of Damascus until the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads in 750, and Libya came under the rule of Baghdad. When Caliph Harun al-Rashid appointed Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab as his governor of Ifriqiya in 800, Libya enjoyed considerable local autonomy under the Aghlabid dynasty. By the tenth hundred, the Shiite Fatimids controlled western Libya, and ruled the stallion region in 972 and appointed Bologhine ibn Ziri as governor. [ 33 ] Ibn Ziri ‘s Berber Zirid dynasty ultimately broke away from the Shiite Fatimids, and recognised the Sunni Abbasids of Baghdad as true Caliphs. In retaliation, the Fatimids brought about the migration of thousands from chiefly two Arab Qaisi tribe, the Banu Sulaym and Banu Hilal to North Africa. This act drastically altered the framework of the Libyan countryside, and cemented the cultural and linguistic Arabisation of the region. [ 33 ] Zirid convention in Tripolitania was ephemeral though, and already in 1001 the Berbers of the Banu Khazrun broke away. Tripolitania remained under their control until 1146, when the region was overtaken by the Normans of Sicily. [ 40 ] It was not until 1159 that the Moroccan Almohad drawing card Abd al-Mu’min reconquered Tripoli from european rule. For the adjacent 50 years, Tripolitania was the picture of numerous battles among Ayyubids, the Almohad rulers and insurgents of the Banu Ghaniya. Later, a cosmopolitan of the Almohads, Muhammad ibn Abu Hafs, ruled Libya from 1207 to 1221 before the late establishment of a tunisian Hafsid dynasty [ 40 ] independent from the Almohads. The Hafsids ruled Tripolitania for closely 300 years. By the sixteenth hundred the Hafsids became increasingly caught up in the baron contend between Spain and the Ottoman Empire. After weakening control of Abbasids, Cyrenaica was under Egypt based states such as Tulunids, Ikhshidids, Ayyubids and Mamluks before Ottoman conquest in 1517. finally Fezzan acquired independence under Awlad Muhammad dynasty after Kanem principle. Ottomans finally conquered Fezzan between 1556 and 1577 .

Ottoman Tripolitania ( 1551–1911 )

The Siege of Tripoli in 1551 allowed the Ottomans to capture the city from the Knights of St. John. After a successful invasion of Tripoli by Habsburg Spain in 1510, [ 40 ] and its handover to the Knights of St. John, the Ottoman admiral Sinan Pasha took dominance of Libya in 1551. [ 40 ] His successor Turgut Reis was named the Bey of Tripoli and later Pasha of Tripoli in 1556. By 1565, administrative authority as regent in Tripoli was vested in a pasha appointed directly by the sultan in Constantinople / Istanbul. In the 1580s, the rulers of Fezzan gave their allegiance to the sultan, and although Ottoman authority was lacking in Cyrenaica, a bey was stationed in Benghazi recently in the future century to act as agent of the government in Tripoli. [ 34 ] european slaves and big numbers of enslave Blacks transported from Sudan were besides a feature of everyday biography in Tripoli. In 1551, Turgut Reis enslaved about the entire population of the Maltese island of Gozo, some 5,000 people, sending them to Libya. [ 41 ] [ 42 ] In time, real office came to rest with the pasha ‘s corps of janissaries. [ 40 ] In 1611 the deys staged a coup d’etat against the pasha, and Dey Sulayman Safar was appointed as oral sex of government. For the following hundred years, a series of deys efficaciously ruled Tripolitania. The two most authoritative Deys were Mehmed Saqizli ( r. 1631–49 ) and Osman Saqizli ( r. 1649–72 ), both besides Pasha, who ruled efficaciously the region. [ 43 ] The latter conquered besides Cyrenaica. [ 43 ]
Lacking direction from the Ottoman government, Tripoli lapsed into a time period of military anarchy during which coup followed coup and few deys survived in position more than a year. One such coup d’etat was led by turkish military officer Ahmed Karamanli. [ 43 ] The Karamanlis ruled from 1711 until 1835 chiefly in Tripolitania, and had influence in Cyrenaica and Fezzan a well by the mid-18th century. Ahmed ‘s successors proved to be less able than himself, however, the region ‘s delicate proportion of exponent allowed the Karamanli. The 1793–95 Tripolitanian civil war occurred in those years. In 1793, turkish officer Ali Pasha deposed Hamet Karamanli and concisely restored Tripolitania to Ottoman govern. Hamet ‘s brother Yusuf ( r. 1795–1832 ) re-established Tripolitania ‘s independence .
A US Navy expedition under Commodore Edward Preble engaging gunboats and fortifications in Tripoli, 1804 In the early nineteenth hundred war broke out between the United States and Tripolitania, and a series of battles ensued in what came to be known as the First Barbary War and the Second Barbary War. By 1819, the respective treaties of the Napoleonic Wars had forced the Barbary states to give up piracy about entirely, and Tripolitania ‘s economy began to crumble. As Yusuf weakened, factions sprung up around his three sons. Civil war soon resulted. [ 44 ] Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II sent in troops apparently to restore orderliness, marking the end of both the Karamanli dynasty and an autonomous Tripolitania. [ 44 ] Order was not recovered easily, and the rebellion of the Libyan under Abd-El-Gelil and Gûma ben Khalifa lasted until the death of the latter in 1858. [ 44 ] The moment period of direct Ottoman rule saw administrative changes, and greater order in the government of the three provinces of Libya. Ottoman govern last reasserted to Fezzan between 1850 and 1875 for earning income from Saharan commerce .

italian colonization ( 1911–1943 )

Omar Mukhtar was a prominent leader of Libyan resistance in Cyrenaica against Italian colonization. After the Italo-Turkish War ( 1911–1912 ), Italy simultaneously turned the three regions into colonies. [ 45 ] From 1912 to 1927, the territory of Libya was known as italian North Africa. From 1927 to 1934, the district was split into two colonies, italian Cyrenaica and italian Tripolitania, run by italian governors. Some 150,000 Italians settled in Libya, constituting roughly 20 % of the total population. [ 46 ]
Omar Mukhtar rose to prominence as a immunity drawing card against italian colonization and became a national hero despite his capture and execution on 16 September 1931. [ 47 ] His face is presently printed on the Libyan ten-spot kuwaiti dinar note in memory and recognition of his patriotism. Another outstanding underground drawing card, Idris al-Mahdi as-Senussi ( later King Idris I ), Emir of Cyrenaica, continued to lead the libyan resistance until the outbreak of the Second World War. The alleged “ peace of Libya “ by the Italians resulted in mass deaths of the autochthonal people in Cyrenaica, killing approximately one quarter of Cyrenaica ‘s population of 225,000. [ 48 ] Ilan Pappé estimates that between 1928 and 1932 the italian military “ killed half the Bedouin population ( directly or through disease and starvation in italian assiduity camps in Libya ). ” [ 49 ] In 1934, Italy combined Cyrenaica, Tripolitania and Fezzan and adopted the name “ Libya ” ( used by the Ancient Greeks for all of North Africa except Egypt ) for the mix colony, with Tripoli as its capital. [ citation needed ] The Italians stress infrastructure improvements and public works. In finical, they greatly expanded Libyan railroad track and road networks from 1934 to 1940, building hundreds of kilometers of new roads and railways and encouraging the establishment of new industries and dozens of raw agricultural villages. In June 1940, Italy entered World War II. Libya became the setting for the hard-fought union African Campaign that ultimately ended in get the better of for Italy and its german ally in 1943. From 1943 to 1951, Libya was under Allied occupation. The british military administered the two former italian Libyan provinces of Tripolitana and Cyrenaïca, while the french administered the province of Fezzan. In 1944, Idris returned from exile in Cairo but declined to resume permanent wave residence in Cyrenaica until the removal of some aspects of foreign manipulate in 1947. Under the terms of the 1947 peace treaty with the Allies, Italy relinquished all claims to Libya. [ 50 ]

independence, Kingdom and Libya under Gaddafi ( 1951–2011 )

King Idris I of the Senussi holy order became the first head of state of Libya in 1951 . Versions of the libyan iris in modern history On 24 December 1951, Libya declared its independence as the United Kingdom of Libya, [ 51 ] a constituent and ancestral monarchy under King Idris, Libya ‘s only sovereign. The discovery of significant petroleum reserves in 1959 and the subsequent income from petroleum sales enabled one of the worldly concern ‘s poorest nations to establish an extremely affluent state. Although oil drastically improved the libyan government ‘s finances, resentment among some factions began to build over the increase assiduity of the nation ‘s wealth in the hands of King Idris. [ 52 ]
Gaddafi ( left ) with egyptian President Nasser in 1969 On 1 September 1969, a group of rebel military officers led by Muammar Gaddafi launched a coup d’état against King Idris, which became known as the Al Fateh Revolution. [ 54 ] Gaddafi was referred to as the “ Brother Leader and Guide of the Revolution “ in government statements and the official Libyan press. [ 55 ] Moving to reduce italian influence, in October 1970 all Italian-owned assets were expropriated and the 12,000-strong Italian community was expelled from Libya alongside the smaller residential district of libyan Jews. The day became a national holiday known as “ Vengeance Day ”. [ 56 ] Libya ‘s increase in prosperity was accompanied by increased inner political repression, and political dissent was made illegal under Law 75 of 1973. far-flung surveillance of the population was carried out through Gaddafi ‘s revolutionary Committees. [ 57 ] [ 58 ] [ 59 ] Gaddafi besides wanted to combat the rigid social restrictions that had been imposed on women by the previous regimen, establishing the Revolutionary Women ‘s Formation to encourage reform. In 1970, a police was introduced affirming equality of the sexes and insisting on wage parity bit. In 1971, Gaddafi sponsored the creation of a Libyan General Women ‘s Federation. In 1972, a law was passed criminalizing the marriage of any females under the senesce of sixteen and ensuring that a woman ‘s consent was a necessary prerequisite for a marriage. [ 60 ] On 25 October 1975, a coup try was launched by some 20 military officers, by and large from the city of Misrata. [ 61 ] This resulted in the collar and executions of the coup d’etat plotters. [ 62 ] On 2 March 1977, Libya formally became the “ socialistic People ‘s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya ”. Gaddafi officially passed might to the General People ‘s Committees and henceforth claimed to be no more than a symbolic front man. [ 63 ] The newfangled jamahiriya ( Arab for “ republic ” ) administration social organization he established was officially referred to as “ lineal democracy “. [ 64 ] In February 1977, Libya started delivering military supplies to Goukouni Oueddei and the People ‘s Armed Forces in Chad. The Chadian–Libyan conflict began in dear when Libya ‘s support of rebel forces in northern Chad escalated into an invasion. later that lapp year, Libya and Egypt fought a four-day molding war that came to be known as the Libyan-Egyptian War. Both nations agreed to a ceasefire under the mediation of the Algerian president Houari Boumediène. [ 65 ] Hundreds of Libyans lost their lives in the area ‘s support for Idi Amin ‘s Uganda in its war against Tanzania. Gaddafi financed respective other groups from anti-nuclear movements to australian trade unions. [ 66 ] From 1977 forth, per caput income in the country rose to more than US $ 11,000, the fifth-highest in Africa, [ 67 ] while the Human Development Index became the highest in Africa and greater than that of Saudi Arabia. [ 68 ] This was achieved without borrowing any foreign loans, keeping Libya debt-free. [ 69 ] The Great Manmade River was besides built to allow release access to fresh water across big parts of the state. [ 68 ] In addition, fiscal support was provided for university scholarships and employment programs. [ 70 ] much of Libya ‘s income from oil, which soared in the 1970s, was spent on arms purchases and on sponsoring dozens of paramilitaries and terrorist groups around the world. [ 71 ] [ 72 ] [ 73 ] An american airstrike intended to kill Gaddafi failed in 1986. Libya was last put under sanctions by the United Nations after the bombing of a commercial flight killed 270 people. [ 74 ]
Muammar Gaddafi gained power in a 1969 coup and was “leader of the revolution” until his overthrow in 2011.

first base Libyan Civil War ( 2011 )

The first base civil war came during the arab spring movements which overturned the rulers of Tunisia and Egypt, Libya experienced a all-out disgust beginning on 17 February 2011. [ 75 ] Libya ‘s authoritarian government led by Muammar Gaddafi put up much more of a resistance compared to the regimes in Egypt and Tunisia. While overthrowing the regimes in Egypt and Tunisia was a relatively quick process, Gaddafi ‘s campaign posed significant stalls on the uprisings in Libya. [ 76 ] The first announcement of a competing political authority appeared on-line and declared the Interim Transitional National Council as an option politics. One of Gaddafi ‘s aged advisors responded by posting a tweet, wherein he resigned, defected, and advised Gaddafi to flee. [ 77 ] By 20 February, the agitation had spread to Tripoli. On 27 February 2011, the National Transitional Council was established to administer the areas of Libya under rebel dominance. On 10 March 2011, America and many early nations recognised the council headed by Mahmoud Jibril as acting flower minister and as the lawful spokesperson of the libyan people and withdrawing the recognition of Gaddafi ‘s regimen. [ 78 ] [ 79 ] Pro-Gaddafi forces were able to respond militarily to rebel pushes in western Libya and launched a counterattack along the slide toward Benghazi, the de facto center of the rise. [ 80 ] The town of Zawiya, 48 kilometres ( 30 nautical mile ) from Tripoli, was bombarded by air out pull planes and army tanks and seized by Jamahiriya troops, “ exercising a level of ferociousness not yet seen in the conflict. ” [ 81 ]
Organizations of the United Nations, including United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki-moon [ 82 ] and the United Nations Human Rights Council, condemned the crackdown as violating external law, with the latter torso expelling Libya outright in an unprecedented military action. [ 83 ] [ 84 ] On 17 March 2011 the UN Security Council passed Resolution 1973, [ 85 ] with a 10–0 vote and five abstentions including Russia, China, India, Brazil and Germany. The settlement sanctioned the administration of a no-fly zone and the habit of “ all means necessary ” to protect civilians within Libya. [ 86 ] On 19 March, the first work of NATO allies to secure the no-fly partition began by destroying Libyan air defenses when french military jets entered Libyan airspace on a reconnaissance mission heralding attacks on foe targets. [ 87 ] In the weeks that followed, american forces were in the vanguard of NATO operations against Libya. More than 8,000 american personnel in warships and aircraft were deployed in the area. At least 3,000 targets were struck in 14,202 strike sorties, 716 of them in Tripoli and 492 in Brega. [ 88 ] The American air nauseating included flights of B-2 Stealth bombers, each bomber armed with sixteen 2000-pound bombs, flying out of and returning to their free-base in Missouri in the continental United States. [ 89 ] The support provided by the NATO air forces contributed to the ultimate success of the revolution. [ 90 ] By 22 August 2011, rebel fighters had entered Tripoli and occupied Green Square, [ 91 ] which they renamed Martyrs ‘ Square in honor of those killed since 17 February 2011. On 20 October 2011, the concluding dense fight of the resurrect came to an end in the city of Sirte. The Battle of Sirte was both the concluding decisive battle and the last matchless in general of the First Libyan Civil War where Gaddafi was captured and killed by NATO backed forces on 20 October 2011. Sirte was the last Gaddafi loyalist stronghold and his place of birth. The frustration of loyalist forces was celebrated on 23 October 2011, three days after the fall of Sirte. At least 30,000 Libyans died in the civil war. [ 92 ] In addition, the National Transitional Council estimated 50,000 wounded. [ 93 ]

Post-Gaddafi earned run average and the Second Libyan Civil War

Since the get the better of of loyalist forces, Libya has been torn among numerous rival, armed militias affiliated with distinct regions, cities and tribes, while the central government has been weak and unable effectively to exert its authority over the country. Competing militias have pitted themselves against each early in a political clamber between Islamist politicians and their opponents. [ 94 ] On 7 July 2012, Libyans held their first parliamentary elections since the end of the former government. On 8 August 2012, the National Transitional Council officially handed power over to the wholly elected General National Congress, which was then tasked with the formation of an interim politics and the enlist of a new Libyan Constitution to be approved in a general referendum. [ 95 ] On 25 August 2012, in what Reuters reported as “ the most blatant sectarian attack ” since the end of the civil war, nameless organized assailants bulldozed a Sufi mosque with graves, in broad daylight in the focus on of the Libyan capital Tripoli. It was the second such razing of a Sufi web site in two days. [ 96 ] numerous acts of vandalism and destruction of heritage were carried out by suspect Islamist militia, including the removal of the Nude Gazelle Statue and the destruction and profanation of World War II-era British grave sites near Benghazi. [ 97 ] [ 98 ] Many other cases of inheritance vandalism were carried out and were reported to be carried out by Islamist-related radical militia and mob that either destroyed, robbed, or looted a count of historic sites, which remain in danger at present. On 11 September 2012, Islamist militants mounted an attack on the american english consulate in Benghazi, killing the U.S. ambassador to Libya, J. Christopher Stevens, and three others. The incidental generated scandalization in the United States and Libya. [ 99 ] On 7 October 2012, Libya ‘s Prime Minister-elect Mustafa A.G. Abushagur was ousted after failing a second clock time to win parliamentary approval for a modern cabinet. [ 100 ] [ 101 ] [ 102 ] On 14 October 2012, the General National Congress elected early GNC extremity and homo rights lawyer Ali Zeidan as choice minister-designate. [ 103 ] Zeidan was sworn in after his cabinet was approved by the GNC. [ 104 ] [ 105 ] On 11 March 2014, after having been ousted by the GNC for his inability to halt a rogue vegetable oil dispatch, [ 106 ] Prime Minister Zeiden stepped depressed, and was replaced by Prime Minister Abdullah al-Thani. [ 107 ] On 25 March 2014, in the confront of mounting instability, al-Thani ‘s government concisely explored the hypothesis of the restoration of the Libyan monarchy. [ citation needed ]
In June 2014, elections were held to the House of Representatives, a fresh legislative body intended to take over from the General National Congress. The elections were marred by ferocity and low turnout, with vote stations closed in some areas. [ 108 ] Secularists and liberals did well in the elections, to the alarm of islamist lawmakers in the GNC, who reconvened and declared a continuing mandate for the GNC, refusing to recognise the new House of Representatives. [ 109 ] Armed supporters of the General National Congress occupied Tripoli, forcing the newly elected parliament to flee to Tobruk. [ 110 ] [ 111 ] Libya has been riven by conflict between the rival parliaments since mid-2014. Tribal militia and jihadist groups have taken advantage of the office void. Most notably, extremist Islamist fighters seized Derna in 2014 and Sirte in 2015 in the name of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant. In early 2015, neighbouring Egypt launched airstrikes against ISIL in support of the Tobruk government. [ 112 ] [ 113 ] [ 114 ]
In January 2015, meetings were held with the aim to find a passive agreement between the equal parties in Libya. The alleged Geneva-Ghadames talks were supposed to bring the GNC and the Tobruk government together at one table to find a solution of the internal battle. however, the GNC actually never participated, a sign that inner division not only affected the “ Tobruk Camp ”, but besides the “ Tripoli Camp ”. meanwhile, terrorism within Libya has steadily increased, affecting besides neighbouring countries. The terrorist attack against the Bardo Museum on 18 March 2015, was reportedly carried on by two Libyan-trained militants. [ 115 ] During 2015 an extend series of diplomatic meetings and peace negotiations were supported by the United Nations, as conducted by the extra Representative of the Secretary-General ( SRSG ), spanish diplomat Bernardino Leon. [ 116 ] [ 117 ] UN support for the SRSG-led process of dialogue carried on in summation to the common work of the United Nations Support Mission in Libya ( UNSMIL ). [ 118 ] In July 2015 SRSG Leon reported to the UN Security Council on the progress of the negotiations, which at that distributor point had precisely achieved a political agreement on 11 July setting out “ a comprehensive framework … includ [ ing ] guide principles … institutions and decision-making mechanisms to guide the transition until the adoption of a permanent constitution. ” The submit determination of that process was “ … intended to culminate in the creation of a modern, democratic department of state based on the rationale of inclusion, the rule of law, separation of powers and respect for human rights. ” The SRSG praised the participants for achieving agreement, stating that “ The libyan people have unambiguously expressed themselves in favor of peace. ” The SRSG then informed the Security Council that “ Libya is at a critical stage ” and urging “ all parties in Libya to continue to engage constructively in the dialogue procedure ”, stating that “ only through dialogue and political compromise, can a passive settlement of the battle be achieved. A peaceful transition will merely succeed in Libya through a significant and align attempt in supporting a future Government of National Accord … ”. Talks, negotiations and dialogue continued on during mid-2015 at diverse international locations, culminating at Skhirat in Morocco in early September. [ 119 ] [ 120 ] besides in 2015, as part of the ongoing subscribe from the international community, the UN Human Rights Council requested a report about the libyan situation [ 121 ] [ 122 ] and the High Commissioner for Human Rights, Zeid Ra ’ ad Al Hussein, established an fact-finding torso ( OIOL ) to report on human rights and rebuilding the Libyan judge organization. [ 123 ] Chaos-ridden Libya has emerged as a major theodolite point for people trying to reach Europe. Between 2013 and 2018, closely 700,000 migrants reached Italy by gravy boat, many of them from Libya. [ 124 ] [ 125 ] In May 2018 Libya ‘s rival leaders agreed to hold parliamentary and presidential elections following a meet in Paris. [ 126 ] In April 2019, Khalifa Haftar launched Operation Flood of Dignity, in an offensive by the Libyan National Army aimed to seize westerly territories from the Government of National Accord ( GNA ). [ 127 ] In June 2019, forces allied to Libya ‘s UN-recognized Government of National Accord successfully captured Gharyan, a strategic town where military commander Khalifa Haftar and his fighters were based. According to a spokesman for GNA forces, Mustafa al-Mejii, dozens of LNA fighters under Haftar were killed, while at least 18 were taken prisoner. [ 128 ] In March 2020, UN-backed politics of Fayez Al-Sarraj commenced Operation Peace Storm. The government initiated the bid in response to the submit of assaults carried by Haftar ’ s LNA. “ We are a legitimate, civilian government that respects its obligations to the external community, but is committed chiefly to its people and has an debt instrument to protect its citizens, ” Sarraj said in line with his decision. [ 129 ] On 28 August 2020, the BBC Africa Eye and BBC Arabic Documentaries revealed that a drone operated by the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) killed 26 young cadets at a military academy in Tripoli, on 4 January. Most of the cadets were teenagers and none of them were armed. The Chinese drone Wing Loong II fired Blue Arrow 7 projectile, which was operated from UAE-run Al-Khadim Libyan air base. In February, these drones stationed in Libya were moved to an air foundation near Siwa in the western Egyptian defect. [ 130 ] The Guardian probe and discovered the blatant trespass of UN arms embargo by the UAE and Turkey on 7 October 2020. As per the coverage, both the nations sent large-scale military cargo planes to Libya in digest of their respective parties. [ 131 ] On 23 October 2020, a permanent ceasefire was signed to end the war. [ 132 ]

Post-civil war years

In December 2021, the country ‘s foremost presidential election was scheduled but has been indefinitely delayed. [ 133 ]

geography

A function of Libya Libya map of Köppen climate classification Sand dunes, rocks, and mountains in Tadrart Acacus, a desert area in southwest Libya, separate of the Sahara Libya extends over 1,759,540 square kilometres ( 679,362 sq nautical mile ), making it the 16th largest state in the worldly concern by size. Libya is bound to the north by the Mediterranean Sea, the west by Tunisia and Algeria, the southwest by Niger, the south by Chad, the southeasterly by Sudan, and the east by Egypt. Libya lies between latitudes 19° and 34°N, and longitudes 9° and 26°E. At 1,770 kilometres ( 1,100 myocardial infarction ), Libya ‘s coastline is the longest of any african nation bordering the Mediterranean. [ 134 ] [ 135 ] The part of the Mediterranean Sea north of Libya is frequently called the Libyan Sea. The climate is by and large highly dry and desertlike in nature. however, the northern regions enjoy a meek Mediterranean climate. [ 136 ] Six ecoregions lie within Libya ‘s borders : Saharan halophytics, Mediterranean dry woodlands and steppe, Mediterranean woodlands and forests, North Saharan steppe and woodlands, Tibesti-Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands, and West Saharan montane xeric woodlands. [ 137 ] natural hazards come in the form of hot, dry, dust-laden dust storm ( known in Libya as the gibli ). This is a southerly wind blowing from one to four days in bounce and fall. There are besides debris storms and sandstorms. Oases can besides be found scattered throughout Libya, the most authoritative of which are Ghadames and Kufra. [ 138 ] Libya is one of the sunniest and driest countries in the worldly concern due to prevailing presence of defect environment. Libya was a initiate state in North Africa in species protection, with the creation in 1975 of the El Kouf protected sphere. The fall of Muammar Gaddafi ‘s government favoured intense poach : “ Before the fall of Gaddafi even hunting rifles were forbid. But since 2011, poaching has been carried out with weapons of war and sophisticated vehicles in which matchless can find up to 200 gazelle heads killed by militiamen who hunt to pass the time. We are besides witnessing the emergence of hunters with no connection to the tribes that traditionally commit hunting. They shoot everything they find, even during the breeding season. More than 500,000 birds are killed in this way each year, when protected areas have been seized by tribal chiefs who have appropriated them. The animals that used to live there have all disappeared, hunted when they are edible or released when they are not, ” explains zoologist Khaled Ettaieb. [ 139 ]

Libyan Desert

Libya is a predominantly desert nation. Up to 90 % of the land area is covered in abandon. The Libyan Desert, which covers much of Libya, is one of the most arid and sun-baked places on earth. [ 54 ] In places, decades may pass without seeing any rain at all, and even in the highlands rainfall rarely happens, once every 5–10 years. At Uweinat, as of 2006 the survive recorded rain was in September 1998. [ 140 ] besides, the temperature in the Libyan Desert can be extreme point ; on 13 September 1922, the town of ‘Aziziya, which is located southwest of Tripoli, recorded an air temperature of 58 °C ( 136.4 °F ), considered to be a world record. [ 141 ] [ 142 ] [ 143 ] In September 2012, however, the worldly concern record figure of 58 °C was overturned by the World Meteorological Organization. [ 142 ] [ 143 ] [ 144 ] There are a few spread uninhabited little oases, normally linked to the major depressions, where water can be found by digging to a few feet in depth. In the west there is a wide dispersed group of oases in unconnected shallow depressions, the Kufra group, consisting of Tazerbo, Rebianae and Kufra. [ 140 ] apart from the escarpment, the general flatness is lone interrupted by a series of tableland and massif near the center of the Libyan Desert, around the convergence of the Egyptian-Sudanese-Libyan borders. slightly further to the south are the massif of Arkenu, Uweinat, and Kissu. These granite mountains are ancient, having formed long before the sandstones surrounding them. Arkenu and Western Uweinat are ring complexes very like to those in the Aïr Mountains. Eastern Uweinat ( the highest point in the Libyan Desert ) is a raise sandstone tableland adjacent to the granite part further west. [ 140 ]

The plain to the north of Uweinat is dotted with erode volcanic features. With the discovery of anoint in the 1950s besides came the discovery of a massive aquifer underneath much of Libya. The water in the nubian Sandstone Aquifer System pre-dates the last Ice ages and the Sahara Desert itself. [ 145 ] This sphere besides contains the Arkenu structures, which were once thought to be two impact craters. [ 146 ]

Government and politics

In March 2021, the state formed an interim oneness government to run the state until elections in December 2021 [ needs update ]. The legislature of Libya is the unicameral House of Representatives which meets in Tobruk. [ 147 ] The former legislature was the General National Congress, which had 200 seats. [ 148 ] The General National Congress ( 2014 ), a largely unrecognized rival parliament based in the de jure capital of Tripoli, claims to be a legal continuance of the GNC. [ 149 ] [ 150 ] On 7 July 2012, Libyans voted in parliamentary elections, the first free elections in about 40 years. [ 151 ] Around thirty women were elected to become members of parliament. [ 151 ] early results of the vote showed the National Forces Alliance, led by former interim Prime Minister Mahmoud Jibril, as front man ball carrier. [ 152 ] The Justice and Construction Party, affiliated to the Muslim Brotherhood, has done less well than like parties in Egypt and Tunisia. [ 153 ] It won 17 out of 80 seats that were contested by parties, but about 60 independents have since joined its caucus. [ 153 ] As of January 2013, there was mounting public pressure on the National Congress to set up a draft body to create a new united states constitution. Congress had not yet decided whether the members of the soundbox would be elected or appointed. [ 154 ]
On 30 March 2014, the General National Congress voted to replace itself with a new House of Representatives. The new legislature allocates 30 seats for women, will have 200 seats overall ( with individuals able to run as members of political parties ) and allows Libyans of foreign nationalities to run for office. [ 155 ] Following the 2012 elections, Freedom House improved Libya ‘s rat from not Free to Partly Free, and now considers the country to be an electoral democracy. [ 156 ] Gaddafi merged civil and shariah courts in 1973. civil courts now employ sharia judges who sit in regular courts of appeal and specify in shariah appellate cases. [ 157 ] Laws regarding personal condition are derived from Islamic law. [ 158 ] At a merging of the European Parliament Committee on Foreign Affairs on 2 December 2014, UN Special Representative Bernardino León described Libya as a non-state. [ 159 ] An agreement to form a national oneness government was signed on 17 December 2015. [ 160 ] Under the terms of the agreement, a nine-member Presidency Council and a seventeen-member interim Government of National Accord would be formed, with a view to holding newly elections within two years. [ 160 ] The House of Representatives would continue to exist as a legislature and an advisory soundbox, to be known as the State Council, will be formed with members nominated by the General National Congress ( 2014 ). [ 161 ] The formation of an interim integrity government was announced on 5 February 2021, after its members were elected by the Libyan Political Dialogue Forum ( LPDF ). [ 162 ] Seventy four members of the LPDF cast ballots for four-member slates which would fill positions including the Prime Minister and the head of the Presidential Council. [ 162 ] After no slates reached a 60 % right to vote threshold, the two lead teams competed in a run-off election. [ 162 ] Mohamed al-Menfi, a early ambassador to Greece, became head of the Presidential Council. [ 163 ] meanwhile, the LPDF confirmed that Abdul Hamid Dbeibeh, a businessman, would be the transitional Prime Minister. [ 163 ] All of the candidates who ran in this election, including the members of the winning slate, promised to appoint women to 30 % of all senior government positions. [ 163 ] The politicians elected to lead the interim government initially agreed not to stand in the national elections scheduled for 24 December 2021. [ 163 ] however, Abdul Hamid Dbeibeh announced his campaigning for president despite the banish in November 2021. [ 164 ] The Appeals Court in Tripoli rejected appeals for his disqualification, and allowed Dbeibeh back on the candidates ‘ list, along with a issue of other disqualify candidates, primitively scheduled for December 24. [ 165 ] even more controversially, the court besides reinstated Saif al-Islam Gaddafi, a son of the early dictator, as a presidential campaigner. [ 166 ] [ 167 ] On 22 December 202, Libya ‘s Election Commission called for the delay of the election until 24 January 2021. [ 168 ] Earlier, a parliamentary deputation said it would be “ impossible ” to hold the election on 24 December 2021. [ 169 ] The UN called on Libya ‘s interim leaders to “ efficiently address all legal and political obstacles to hold elections, including finalising the list of presidential candidates ”. [ 169 ] however, at the concluding moment, the election was postponed indefinitely and the international residential district agreed to continue its support and recognition of the interim government headed by Mr Dbeibeh. [ 170 ] [ 171 ] According to new election rules, a raw choice minister has 21 days to form a cabinet that must be endorsed by the versatile governing bodies within Libya. [ 163 ] After this cabinet is agreed upon, the oneness government will replace all “ twin authorities ” within Libya, including the Government of National Accord in Tripoli and the government led by General Haftar. [ 163 ]

foreign relations

Libya ‘s foreign policies have fluctuated since 1951. As a Kingdom, Libya maintained a definitively pro-Western stance, and was recognized as belong to the button-down hidebound bloc in the League of Arab States ( the contemporary Arab League ), of which it became a extremity in 1953. [ 172 ] The government was besides friendly towards western countries such as the United Kingdom, United States, France, Italy, Greece, and established full diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union in 1955. [ 173 ] Although the government supported Arab causes, including the Moroccan and algerian independence movements, it took short active separate in the Arab-Israeli quarrel or the disruptive inter-Arab politics of the 1950s and early on 1960s. The Kingdom was noted for its close association with the West, while it steered a bourgeois course at home. [ 174 ]
After the 1969 coup d’etat, Muammar Gaddafi closed American and british bases and partially nationalize foreign vegetable oil and commercial interests in Libya. Gaddafi was known for backing a number of leaders viewed as anathema to Westernization and political liberalism, including Ugandan President Idi Amin, [ 175 ] Central African Emperor Jean-Bédel Bokassa, [ 176 ] [ 177 ] Ethiopian strongman Haile Mariam Mengistu, [ 177 ] liberian President Charles Taylor, [ 178 ] and Yugoslav President Slobodan Milošević. [ 179 ] Relations with the West were strained by a series of incidents for most of Gaddafi ‘s rule, [ 180 ] [ 181 ] [ 182 ] including the kill of London police matron Yvonne Fletcher, the bombard of a West Berlin cabaret frequented by U.S. servicemen, and the fail of Pan Am Flight 103, which led to UN sanctions in the 1990s, though by the late 2000s, the United States and early western powers had normalised relations with Libya. [ 54 ] Gaddafi ‘s decision to abandon the avocation of weapons of mass destruction after the Iraq War saw Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein overrule and put on trial led to Libya being hailed as a success for western cushy might initiatives in the War on Terror. [ 183 ] [ 184 ] [ 185 ] In October 2010, Gaddafi apologized to african leaders on behalf of Arab nations for their participation in the trans-Saharan slave trade. [ 186 ] Libya is included in the European Union ‘s european neighborhood Policy ( ENP ) which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer. libyan authorities rejected European Union ‘s plans aimed at stopping migration from Libya. [ 187 ] [ 188 ] In 2017, Libya signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons. [ 189 ]

military

Libya ‘s previous home army was defeated in the Libyan Civil War and disbanded. The Tobruk based House of Representatives who claim to be the legitimate government of Libya have attempted to reestablish a military acknowledge as the Libyan National Army. Led by Khalifa Haftar, they control much of easterly Libya. [ 190 ] In May 2012, an estimated 35,000 personnel had joined its ranks. [ 191 ] The internationally acknowledge Government of National Accord established in 2015 has its own army that replaced the LNA, but it consists largely of undisciplined and disorganized militia groups. As of November 2012, it was deemed to be still in the embryonic stage of development. [ 192 ] President Mohammed el-Megarif promised that empowering the united states army and police power is the government ‘s biggest precedence. [ 193 ] President el-Megarif besides ordered that all of the state ‘s militias must come under government assurance or disband. [ 194 ] Militias have therefore far refused to be integrated into a cardinal security wedge. [ 195 ] Many of these militias are disciplined, but the most powerful of them answer only to the administrator councils of assorted libyan cities. [ 195 ] These militias make up the alleged Libyan Shield, a parallel national force, which operates at the request, preferably than at the order, of the defense ministry. [ 195 ]

administrative divisions

Districts of Libya since 2007 historically, the area of Libya was considered three provinces ( or states ), Tripolitania in the northwestern, Barka ( Cyrenaica ) in the east, and Fezzan in the southwest. It was the conquest by Italy in the Italo-Turkish War that united them in a single political unit of measurement. Since 2007, Libya has been divided into 22 districts ( Shabiyat ) :

Human rights

According to Human Rights Watch annual report 2016, journalists are however being targeted by the arm groups in Libya. The administration added that Libya ranked very low in the 2015 Press Freedom Index, 154th out of 180 countries. [ 196 ] Homosexuality is illegal in Libya. [ 197 ] For the 2019 Press Freedom Index its score dropped to 162nd out of 180 countries .

economy

A proportional representation of Libya exports, 2019 The libyan economy depends primarily upon revenues from the oil sector, which account for over half of GDP and 97 % of exports. [ 198 ] Libya holds the largest proved oil reserves in Africa and is an authoritative subscriber to the ball-shaped provision of light, gratifying crude. [ 199 ] During 2010, when oil averaged at $ 80 a barrel, oil production accounted for 54 % of GDP. [ 200 ] Apart from petroleum, the other natural resources are natural boast and gypsum. [ 201 ] The International Monetary Fund estimated Libya ‘s actual GDP increase at 122 % in 2012 and 16.7 % in 2013, after a 60 % plunge in 2011. [ 198 ] The World Bank defines Libya as an ‘Upper Middle Income Economy ‘, along with only seven other african countries. [ 202 ] Substantial revenues from the energy sector, coupled with a small population, give Libya one of the highest per head GDPs in Africa. [ 201 ] This allowed the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya state to provide an across-the-board horizontal surface of social security, particularly in the fields of housing and department of education. [ 203 ] Libya faces many morphologic problems including a miss of institutions, weak government, and chronic structural unemployment. [ 204 ] The economy displays a miss of economic diversification and meaning reliance on immigrant labor. [ 205 ] Libya has traditionally relied on unsustainably high levels of public sector hiring to create employment. [ 206 ] In the mid-2000s, the government employed about 70 % of all national employees. [ 205 ] unemployment rose from 8 % in 2008 to 21 % in 2009, according to the census figures. [ 207 ] According to an Arab League report, based on data from 2010, unemployment for women stands at 18 % while for the figure for men is 21 %, making Libya the only Arab state where there are more unemployed people men than women. [ 208 ] Libya has high levels of social inequality, eminent rates of youth unemployment and regional economic disparities. [ 206 ] Water issue is besides a problem, with some 28 % of the population not having access to safe drink body of water in 2000. [ 209 ]
libya imports up to 90 % of its grain pulmonary tuberculosis requirements, and imports of wheat in 2012/13 was estimated at about 1 million tonnes. [ 210 ] The 2012 wheat production was estimated at about 200,000 tonnes. [ 210 ] The government hopes to increase food production to 800,000 tonnes of cereals by 2020. [ 210 ] however, natural and environmental conditions limit Libya ‘s agrarian production electric potential. [ 210 ] Before 1958, agriculture was the country ‘s main source of tax income, making up about 30 % of GDP. With the discovery of anoint in 1958, the size of the agriculture sector declined quickly, comprising less than 5 % GDP by 2005. [ 211 ] The country joined OPEC in 1962. [ 201 ] Libya is not a world trade organization member, but negotiations for its accession started in 2004. [ 212 ] In the early 1980s, Libya was one of the wealthiest countries in the world ; its GDP per caput was higher than some develop countries. [ 213 ]
In the early on 2000s officials of the Jamahiriya era carried out economic reforms to reintegrate Libya into the global economy. [ 215 ] UN sanctions were lifted in September 2003, and Libya announced in December 2003 that it would abandon programs to build weapons of mass end. [ 216 ] early steps have included applying for membership of the World Trade Organization, reducing subsidies, and announcing plans for denationalization. [ 217 ] Authorities privatized more than 100 politics owned companies after 2003 in industries including petroleum complicate, tourism and real estate, of which 29 were 100 % foreign owned. [ 218 ] Many international oil companies returned to the state, including vegetable oil giants Shell and ExxonMobil. [ 219 ] After sanctions were lifted there was a gradual increase of air traffic, and by 2005 there were 1.5 million annual tune travellers. [ 220 ] Libya had long been a notoriously unmanageable country for westerly tourists to visit ascribable to stringent visa requirements. [ 221 ] In 2007 Saif al-Islam Gaddafi, the second-eldest son of Muammar Gaddafi, was involved in a green development project called the Green Mountain Sustainable Development Area, which sought to bring tourism to Cyrene and to preserve greek ruins in the area. [ 222 ] In August 2011 it was estimated that it would take at least 10 years to rebuild Libya ‘s infrastructure. even before the 2011 war, Libya ‘s infrastructure was in a poor department of state due to “ utter neglect ” by Gaddafi ‘s presidency, according to the NTC. [ 223 ] By October 2012, the economy had recovered from the 2011 dispute, with vegetable oil product returning to near normal levels. [ 198 ] Oil production was more than 1.6 million barrels per day before the war. By October 2012, the average vegetable oil production has surpassed 1.4 million bpd. [ 198 ] The resumption of output was made possible due to the promptly return of major western companies, like Total, Eni, Repsol, Wintershall and Occidental. [ 198 ] In 2016, an announcement from the company said the company aims 900,000 barrel per sidereal day in the next year. Oil production has fallen from 1.6 million barrel per day to 900,000 in four years of war. [ 224 ] The Great Man-Made River is the world ‘s largest irrigation project. [ 225 ] The project utilizes a pipeline system that pumps fossil water from the nubian Sandstone Aquifer System from down confederacy in Libya to cities in the populous Libyan northerly Mediterranean coast including Tripoli and Benghazi. The water provides 70 % of all fresh water used in Libya. [ 226 ] During the second base Libyan civil war, lasting from 2014 to 2020, the water infrastructure suffered neglect and episodic breakdowns. [ 227 ] By 2017, 60 % of the libyan population were malnourished. Since then, 1.3 million people are waiting for hand brake human-centered help, out of a sum population of 6.4 million. [ 228 ]

Demographics

Libya is a big country with a relatively little population, and the population is concentrated identical narrowly along the slide. [ 229 ] Population concentration is about 50 inhabitants per feather kilometer ( 130/sq secret intelligence service ) in the two northerly regions of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, but falls to less than 1 inhabitant per square kilometer ( 2.6/sq secret intelligence service ) elsewhere. Ninety percentage of the people live in less than 10 % of the area, primarily along the slide. About 88 % of the population is urban, largely concentrated in the three largest cities, Tripoli, Benghazi and Misrata. Libya has a population of about 6.7 million, [ 230 ] [ 231 ] 27.7 % of whom are under the age of 15. [ 215 ] In 1984 the population was 3.6 million, an increase from the 1.54 million reported in 1964. [ 232 ] The majority of the Libyan population today identifies as Arab, that is, Arabic -speaking and Arab-cultured. Berber Libyans, those who retain Berber linguistic process and Berber culture, represent the second largest ethnic group and are found primarily in Nafusa Mountains and Zuwarah. additionally, the South of Libya, chiefly Sebha, Kufra, Ghat, Ghadamis and Murzuk, are besides inhabited by two extra libyan ethnicities : the Tuareg and Toubou. There are about 140 tribes and clans in Libya. [ 233 ] Family life is significant for libyan families, the majority of which live in apartment blocks and other mugwump housing units, with accurate modes of caparison depending on their income and wealth. Although the Arab Libyans traditionally lived mobile lifestyles in tents, they have now settled in versatile towns and cities. [ 234 ] Because of this, their old ways of life are gradually fading out. An unknown little number of Libyans still live in the desert as their families have done for centuries. Most of the population has occupations in industry and services, and a small percentage is in farming. According to the UNHCR, there were around 8,000 registered refugees, 5,500 unregistered refugees, and 7,000 mental hospital seekers of diverse origins in Libya in January 2013. additionally, 47,000 libyan nationals were internally displaced and 46,570 were internally displaced returnees. [ 235 ]

Health

In 2010, spending on healthcare accounted for 3.88 % of the country ‘s GDP. In 2009, there were 18.71 physicians and 66.95 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants. [ 236 ] The life anticipation at birth was 74.95 years in 2011, or 72.44 years for males and 77.59 years for females. [ 237 ]

education

Al Manar Royal Palace in central Benghazi – the localization of the University of Libya ‘s first campus, founded by royal decree in 1955 Libya ‘s population includes 1.7 million students, over 270,000 of whom survey at the tertiary tied. [ 238 ] Basic department of education in Libya is free for all citizens, [ 239 ] and is compulsory up to the secondary degree. The pornographic literacy rate in 2010 was 89.2 %. [ 240 ] After Libya ‘s independence in 1951, its first university – the University of Libya – was established in Benghazi by royal decree. [ 241 ] In the 1975–76 academician class the number of university students was estimated to be 13,418. As of 2004, this count has increased to more than 200,000, with an extra 70,000 enrolled in the higher technical and vocational sector. [ 238 ] The rapid increase in the number of students in the higher education sector has been mirrored by an increase in the number of institutions of higher education. Since 1975 the number of universities has grown from two to nine and after their presentation in 1980, the issue of higher technical and vocational institutes presently stands at 84 ( with 12 public universities ). [ ? clarification needed ] [ 238 ] Since 2007 some new private universities such as the Libyan International Medical University have been established. Although before 2011 a little number of individual institutions were given accreditation, the majority of Libya ‘s higher education has constantly been financed by the populace budget. In 1998 the budget allotment for education represented 38.2 % of Libya ‘s entire national budget. [ 241 ]

ethnicity

A map indicating the cultural composition of Libya in 1974 The original inhabitants of Libya belonged predominantly to diverse Berber cultural groups ; however, the long series of extraneous invasions and migrations – particularly by Arabs and Turks – have had a fundamental and lasting linguistic, cultural, and identity influence on Libya ‘s demographics. today, the great majority of Libya ‘s inhabitants are Arabic-speaking Muslims of desegregate descent, with many claiming lineage tracing to Bedouin arabian tribes like Banu Sulaym and Banu Hilal, beside Turkish and Berber ethnicities. The turkish minority are often called “ Kouloughlis “ and are concentrated in and around villages and towns. [ 242 ] additionally, there are some Libyan heathen minorities, such as the Berber Tuareg and the Tebou. [ 243 ] Most italian settlers, at their stature count over half a million, left after italian Libya ‘s independence in 1947. More repatriated in 1970 after the accession of Muammar Gaddafi, but a few hundred of them returned in the 2000s. [ 244 ]

Immigrant labor

As of 2013, the UN estimates that around 12 % of Libya ‘s population ( upwards of 740,000 people ) was made up of alien migrants. [ 13 ] Prior to the 2011 revolution official and unofficial figures of migrant british labour party range from 25 % to 40 % of the population ( between 1.5 and 2.4 million people ). Historically, Libya has been a host state for millions of low- and high-skilled egyptian migrants, in detail. [ 245 ] It is difficult to estimate the entire number of immigrants in Libya as there are frequently differences between census figures, official counts and normally more accurate unofficial estimates. In the 2006 census, around 359,540 extraneous nationals were resident in Libya out of a population of over 5.5 million ( 6.35 % of the population ). Almost one-half of these were Egyptians, followed by Sudanese and palestinian immigrants. [ 246 ] During the 2011 rotation, 768,362 immigrants fled Libya as calculated by the IOM, around 13 % of the population at the meter, although many more stayed on in the country. [ 246 ] [ 247 ] If consular records anterior to the revolution are used to estimate the immigrant population, angstrom many as 2 million egyptian migrants were recorded by the egyptian embassy in Tripoli in 2009, followed by 87,200 Tunisians, and 68,200 Moroccans by their respective embassies. Turkey recorded the elimination of 25,000 workers during the 2011 resurrect. [ 248 ] The count of asian migrants before the revolution were barely over 100,000 ( 60,000 Bangladeshis, 20,000 Filipinos, 18,000 Indians, 10,000 Pakistanis, arsenic well as Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese, Thai and other workers ). [ 249 ] [ 250 ] This would put the immigrant population at about 40 % before the rotation and is a figure more consistent with government estimates in 2004 which put the even and irregular migrant numbers at 1.35 to 1.8 million ( 25–33 % of the population at the time ). [ 246 ] Libya ‘s native population of Arabs-Berbers deoxyadenosine monophosphate well as arab migrants of respective nationalities jointly make up 97 % of the population as of 2014 .

Languages

According to the CIA, the official speech of Libya is Arabic. [ 251 ] The local Libyan Arabic variety show is spoken aboard Modern Standard Arabic. assorted Berber languages are besides spoken, including Tamasheq, Ghadamis, Nafusi, Suknah and Awjilah. [ 251 ] The Libyan Amazigh High Council ( LAHC ) has declared the Amazigh ( Berber or Tamazight ) language as an official linguistic process in the cities and districts inhabited by the Berbers in Libya. [ 252 ] In addition, English is wide understood in the major cities, [ 253 ] while the former colonial speech of italian is besides used in department of commerce and by remaining italian population. [ 251 ]

religion

Mosque in Ghadames, close to the tunisian and algerian edge. about 97 % of the population in Libya are Muslims, most of whom belong to the Sunni branch. [ 215 ] [ 254 ] Small numbers of Ibadi Muslims live in the area. [ 255 ] [ 256 ] Before the 1930s, the Senussi Sunni Sufi drift was the primary Islamic motion in Libya. This was a religious revival adapted to desert life. Its zawaaya ( lodges ) were found in Tripolitania and Fezzan, but Senussi determine was strongest in Cyrenaica. Rescuing the region from unrest and anarchy, the Senussi movement gave the Cyrenaican tribal people a religious fastening and feelings of integrity and purpose. [ 257 ] This Islamic movement was finally destroyed by the italian invasion. Gaddafi asserted that he was a dear Muslim, and his government was taking a function in supporting Islamic institutions and in cosmopolitan proselytising on behalf of Islam. [ 258 ] Since the fall of Gaddafi, ultra-conservative strains of Islam have reasserted themselves in places. Derna in easterly Libya, historically a hotbed of jihadist think, came under the see of militants aligned with the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant in 2014. [ 259 ] Jihadist elements have besides spread to Sirte and Benghazi, among other areas, as a leave of the Second Libyan Civil War. [ 260 ] [ 261 ] There are small foreign communities of Christians. Coptic Orthodox Christianity, which is the christian Church of Egypt, is the largest and most diachronic christian appellation in Libya. There are about 60,000 egyptian Copts in Libya. [ 262 ] There are three coptic Churches in Libya, one in Tripoli, one in Benghazi, and one in Misurata. The Coptic Church has grown in holocene years in Libya, due to the growing immigration of egyptian Copts to Libya. There are an calculate 40,000 Roman Catholics in Libya who are served by two Bishops, one in Tripoli ( serving the Italian community ) and one in Benghazi ( serving the Maltese community ). There is besides a small Anglican community, made up by and large of African immigrant workers in Tripoli ; it is character of the Anglican Diocese of Egypt. People have been arrested on intuition of being christian missionaries, as proselytize is illegal. [ 263 ] Christians have besides faced the menace of violence from group Islamists in some parts of the nation, with a well-publicised television released by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant in February 2015 depicting the mass decapitation of christian Copts. [ 264 ] [ 265 ] Libya was once the home of one of the oldest jewish communities in the world, dating back to at least 300 BC. [ 266 ] In 1942, the italian Fascist authorities set up push labor camps confederacy of Tripoli for the Jews, including Giado ( about 3,000 Jews ), Gharyan, Jeren, and Tigrinna. In Giado some 500 Jews died of helplessness, hunger, and disease. In 1942, Jews who were not in the concentration camps were heavily restricted in their economic activeness and all men between 18 and 45 years were drafted for forced tug. In August 1942, Jews from Tripolitania were interned in a assiduity camp at Sidi Azaz. In the three years after November 1945, more than 140 Jews were murdered, and hundreds more injure, in a series of pogroms. [ 267 ] By 1948, about 38,000 Jews remained in the area. Upon Libya ‘s independence in 1951, most of the Jewish community emigrated .

Largest cities

culture

Ancient Roman mosaic in Sabratha many Arabic address Libyans consider themselves as share of a broad Arab community. This was strengthened by the spread of Pan-Arabism in the mid-20th century, and their reach to power in Libya where they instituted Arabic as the only official terminology of the state. Under Gaddafi ‘s rule, the teaching and even use of autochthonal Berber speech was rigorously forbidden. [ 268 ] In summation to banning alien languages previously taught in academic institutions, leaving entire generations of Libyans with limitations in their inclusion of the english lyric. Both the talk Arabic dialects and Berber, silent retain words from italian, that were acquired before and during the Libia Italiana period. Libyans have a inheritance in the traditions of the previously mobile Bedouin Arabic speakers and sedentary Amazigh tribe. Most libyan associate themselves with a particular family name originating from tribal or conquest based inheritance. Reflecting the “ nature of giving ” ( Arabic : الاحسان Ihsan, Berber languages : ⴰⵏⴰⴽⴽⴰⴼ Anakkaf ), amongst the libyan people a well as the sense of cordial reception, recently the state of Libya made it to the clear 20 on the populace giving exponent in 2013. [ 269 ] According to CAF, in a typical calendar month, about three-quarters ( 72 % ) of all Libyans helped person they did not know – the one-third highest degree across all 135 countries surveyed. There are few theaters or art galleries due to the decades of cultural repression under the Qaddafi regimen and lack of infrastructure development under the government of dictatorship. [ 270 ] For many years there have been no populace theaters, and only very few cinemas showing extraneous films. The custom of folk culture is silent alert and good, with troupes performing music and dance at frequent festivals, both in Libya and afield. [ 271 ] A large total of Libyan television stations are devoted to political review, Islamic topics and cultural phenomena. A number of television receiver stations air diverse styles of traditional Libyan music. [ ? clarification needed ] Tuareg music and dance are democratic in Ghadames and the south. libyan television broadcasts vent programs largely in Arabic though normally have fourth dimension slots for English and french programs. [ ? clarification needed ] A 1996 analysis by the Committee to Protect Journalists found Libya ‘s media was the most tightly controlled in the arab world during the country ‘s dictatorship. [ 272 ] As of 2012 hundreds of television stations have begun to tune due to the collapse of censoring from the old regimen and the initiation of “ exempt media ”. many Libyans frequent the country ‘s beach and they besides visit Libya ‘s archaeological sites—especially Leptis Magna, which is widely considered to be one of the best preserved Roman archaeological sites in the world. [ 273 ] The most park form of populace transportation between cities is the bus, though many people travel by automobile. There are no railway services in Libya, but these are planned for construction in the approximate future ( see fulminate transmit in Libya ). [ 274 ] Libya ‘s capital, Tripoli, has many museums and archives. These include the Government Library, the Ethnographic Museum, the Archaeological Museum, the National Archives, the Epigraphy Museum and the Islamic Museum. The Red Castle Museum located in the das kapital near the slide and right in the city concentrate, built in consultation with UNESCO, may be the area ‘s most celebrated. [ 275 ]

cuisine

libyan cuisine is a mix of the different italian, Bedouin and traditional Arab culinary influences. [ 276 ] Pasta is the staple food in the western side of Libya, whereas rice is generally the staple food in the east. common Libyan foods include several variations of red ( tomato ) sauce based pasta dishes ( alike to the italian Sugo all’arrabbiata dish ) ; rice, normally served with lamb or chicken ( typically stewed, fried, grilled, or boiled in-sauce ) ; and couscous, which is steam cooked whilst held over boil red ( tomato ) sauce and kernel ( sometimes besides containing courgettes/zucchini and chickpea ), which is typically served along with cucumber slices, boodle and olives. Bazeen, a dish made from barley flour and served with crimson tomato sauce, is customarily eaten communally, with several people sharing the same dish, normally by hand. This serve is normally served at traditional weddings or festivities. Asida is a sweet interpretation of Bazeen, made from white flour and served with a mix of beloved, ghee or butter. Another favorite way to serve Asida is with rub ( fresh date syrup ) and olive vegetable oil. Usban is animal folderol stitched and stuffed with rice and vegetables cooked in tomato based soup or steamed. Shurba is a crimson tomato sauce-based soup, normally served with little grains of pasta. [ citation needed ] A very coarse bite eaten by Libyans is known as khubs bi’ tun, literally meaning “ boodle with tuna fish ”, normally served as a baked baguet or pita bread stuffed with tuna pisces that has been mixed with harissa ( chili sauce ) and olive petroleum. many nosh vendors prepare these sandwiches and they can be found all over Libya. libyan restaurants may serve international cuisine, or may serve simpler fare such as lamb, chicken, vegetable stew, potatoes and macaroni. [ citation needed ] Due to severe lack of infrastructure, many under-developed areas and small towns do not have restaurants and rather food stores may be the only source to obtain food products. Alcohol pulmonary tuberculosis is illegal in the stallion country. [ citation needed ] There are four main ingredients of traditional libyan food : olives ( and olive oil ), dates, grains and milk. [ 277 ] Grains are roasted, anchor, sieved and used for making bread, cakes, soups and bazeen. Dates are harvested, dried and can be eaten as they are, made into syrup or slightly fried and eaten with bsisa and milk. After eating, Libyans frequently drink black tea. This is normally repeated a irregular time ( for the irregular glass of tea ), and in the third round of tea, it is served with roast peanuts or roasted almonds known as shay bi’l-luz ( mix with the tea in the same glaze ). [ 277 ]

sport

football is the most democratic frolic in Libya. The nation hosted the 1982 African Cup of Nations and about qualified for the 1986 FIFA World Cup. The home team about won the 1982 AFCON ; they scantily lost to Ghana on penalties 7–6. In 2014, Libya won the african Nations Championship after beating Ghana in the finals. Although the home team has never won a major competition or qualified for a World Cup, there is hush lots of passion for the sport and the quality of football is improving. [ 278 ] sawhorse race is besides a popular sport in Libya. It is a custom of many special occasions and holidays. [ 279 ]

See besides

References

bibliography

This article incorporates public domain material from the CIA World Factbook web site hypertext transfer protocol : //www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/.
This article incorporates public domain substantial from the United States Department of State web site hypertext transfer protocol : //www.state.gov/countries-areas/. ( U.S. Bilateral Relations Fact Sheets )

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