Describing a battery as a fuel type is technically incorrect since it is rather a think of of storing electric power that could be generated in a number of ways. The barrage powered ferries trade in Norway for exercise, recharge their batteries from the land grid and in Norway most electric power is from hydro .
A high number of ships that are now or will in the future be equipped with batteries will be using them as a mean of point shave, storing surfeit power when possible and making use of it at times of high demand alternatively of bringing a far generator on line. There are other possible means of energy storage such as flywheels but these are presently not considered as anything other than experimental in commercial embark circles .
It is anticipated that environmental regulation will at some target see fuel oils displaced in favor of purportedly cleaner fuels such as LNG and methanol although that position has held swing for about a ten and has not so far proved to be right.
At some future steer – possibly following the 2020 global cap on sulphur the diverseness of fuel available may well be much wider than it is today but most ships today and more than 90 % of those on regulate are intended to burn one or more grades of oil refined from crude vegetable oil .
The work of refining involves heating the petroleum oil with or without the use of a catalyst. As the anoint is heated fuels are drawn off at different temperatures. From the point of horizon of marine fuels, the first base types to be of manipulation are marine gas petroleum ( MGO ) and marine diesel oil ( MDO ). These are the distillate fuels and used by and large in high and medium speed engines and gensets. They have a humble viscosity and flash point and a lower energy content measured by volume ( by weight they have a higher energy content ) than more gluey fuels but are generally cleaner and produce less polluting emissions .
The heavier fuels that remain after all early available fuel types have been drawn off are the remainder fuels and are highly gluey. The fuels are used only in depleted and medium amphetamine engines but require heating system in holy order to reduce their viscosity allowing them to be pumped along the fuel system and injected into the combustion chamber. such fuels have a higher energy content by bulk but can besides retain many more of the pollutants from the blunt petroleum. When refined using the catalytic crack process there may besides be catalytic or kat fines give. Cat fines are particles of aluminum and silicon oxides that are remnants of the catalyst used. They are hard and extremely abrasive and damaging to engines .
The current International Standard for an acceptable floor of cat fines is set at a utmost of 60mg/kg, or parts per million ( ppm ). Most engine manufacturers would expect levels to be about 15ppm for their machinery to operate without unusual wear and rip but it is reported that median levels are around 22ppm meaning removal during the fuel treatment procedure on board is highly desirable .
There is an ISO standard for marine fuels which is updated at even intervals. work on the fourth edition began in March 2008, about the lapp time that the IMO requested ISO to prepare a stipulation for marine fuels to coincide with the execution of the Revised MARPOL Annex VI on 1st July 2010. The future version appeared in 2012 ( 5th edition ) and the most late in March 2017 ( 6th edition ). While these standards exist there is no obligation on freely contracting parties to accept only the latest or indeed any standard any. It is still a fact that the huge majority of bunker supplies are made in accordance with the earlier 8217:2005 standard. It is authoritative when ordering fuels to stipulate precisely which standard should apply .
Biofuels
Bio-diesel is a hitch all term for a wide assortment of products. It is possible to produce a bio-diesel from implant fabric, animal material and assorted combinations of both. Often a small quantity of bio-diesel can be added to mineral diesel to produce a more stable fuel. There are few cases of biodiesel being used on a commercial scale in large marine engines but its use in leisure engines is more far-flung .
likely the largest manipulation of bio-diesel in commercial marine is by the Meriaura Group of companies based in Finland. The group has embark interests and has a belittled number of 5,000dwt dry cargo vessels that make use of the EcoFuel produced by another auxiliary VG Marine .
Using a process developed by another finnish company – Sybimar – the waste stream of pisces and aquaculture plants is converted into EcoFuel which being sulphur-free is ideal for function by the ships operating in the Baltic and North Sea SECAs. EcoFuel can be used directly as heavy marine fuel or in a blend with dodo diesel, or it can be processed to inner light marine fuel. It is besides used as environmentally friendly heat petroleum. The naked materials of VG Marine EcoFuel are recycled vegetable oils and pisces process residues .
Some trials of another bio-diesels have been carried out on ships, with Maersk Line in especial being an enthusiastic pioneer. Fuels derived from alga may have some potential as might fuels derived from lignin a vegetable product that remains after other utilitarian products have been extracted. Presently lignin is used largely as a land addition .
Volvo Penta has some comments on the use of bio-diesel in leisure engines which could in some cases apply equally to larger nautical engines. The comments are :
- The biodiesel must be of good quality, which means that it must comply with the EU’s EN14214 fuel standard.
- Biodiesel is an efficient solvent that can, when first used, dissolve constituents in the fuel system. The fuel filter should therefore be changed after a short period of usage.
- Biodiesel is not a fuel with long-term stability, it can oxidize in the fuel system. The entire fuel system must be emptied and operated on normal diesel before any extended period of still standing, such as during winter storage.
- Biodiesel has a negative effect on many rubber and plastic materials. Rubber hoses and plastic components in the fuel system must be checked regularly and changed at more frequent intervals than usual to avoid leakage.
- Biodiesel impairs the lubricating capacity of oil due to its higher boiling point. The intervals for changing lubricating oils and oil filters must be halved compared with normal.
Making use of neutralize products to manufacture bio-fuels may be acceptable but with a growing global population it may be difficult to make a case for diverting food grade oils or using crop land for fuel product. In addition, even when blunt anoint prices were at their extremum, the cost of producing potential bio fuels made their practice economically questionable. Given the decline in crude oil prices by 60 % from the point makes the cost flush more unrealistic .
Low-sulphur choices
The IMO has decided that the final examination decrease of permitted sulfur levels in fuels presently regulated under MARPOL Annex VI will take station in 2020. It is not certain if the refining diligence will accommodate that date by producing low-sulphur fuels in the necessitate quantity and if it does not, then the quantity of distillates, which will be the merely option to ships without scrubbers or able to run on LNG, may besides be well below what is needed for the shipping industry to routine .
The report on which the IMO based its decision to opt for a 2020 date, included data that showed the shipping diligence used 228 million tonnes of dense fuel anoint in 2012 compared to just 65 million tonnes of marine grade distillates. Some major upgrades to refineries will be needed if that 228 million metric ton digit is to be switched to low sulphur fuel oils or distillates – and it should not be forgotten that other uses for refinery products are besides increasing demand .
The matter of actual handiness quite than predicted handiness is something that will be made clear as the 2020 date draws closer. If there is a deficit then the IMO will need to rethink the rule. In the meanwhile, ships operating in ECAs and some early regions where sulfur levels are limit must already meet a level of 0.1 % which is below the 0.5 % of the ball-shaped cap .
There are some low sulphur fuel oils ( LSFO ) available today although he quantities available are not high and there are some newer ultra-low sulphur fuel oils ( ULSFO ) sometimes referred to as hybrid fuels developed to meet the 2015 reduction to 0.1 % in ECAs. early on pioneers in developing ULSFOs were ExxonMobil ( HDME 50 ), Shell ( ULSFO ), BP, SK Energy ( SK ULSFO ), Bunkers International, Chemoil and Lukoil .
The inaugural generation of low-sulphur fuels was promptly followed by newer products. Bunkers International and spouse CI Vanoil have a 0.1 % S fuel oil-based product in Cartagena, Colombia. According to merchandise specifications, the fuel has viscosity of 15-30 CST, 70º C flash point and a pour compass point of -3ºC .
In March 2015, ExxonMobil launched ExxonMobil Premium AFME 200 Marine Fuel joining the older ExxonMobil Premium HDME 50. Exxon-Mobil describe Premium AFME 200 as an advance fuel vegetable oil formulated using a proprietary complicate summons that removes sulphur, metals and other contaminants. This enables the fuel to comply with the ECA sulphur cap and besides helps to optimise the performance of engines and extend component biography. The viscosity of ExxonMobil Premium AFME 200 is comparable to heavy fuel oils ( HFOs ) enabling alike repositing and wield practices for both fuels on board vessels. Both fuels require preheat, consequently reducing the risk of thermal shock to locomotive components during switchovers to comply with the ECA sulphur hood. Thermal shock may result in fuel pump seizures and locomotive shutdowns and has the potential to occur when switching from heated HFO to marine natural gas oil ( MGO ) at ambient temperatures .
generally LSFO is available in viscosities of 380csts and 180csts it is considered to have a sulfur subject of 1.0 %. This is excessively high for use in an ECA but ULSFO with a sulphur subject of 0.1 % meet ECA requirements is available at some ports .
ULSFOs are particularly formulated fuels developed by major bunker suppliers and typically have a premium price around 150 % higher than standard IFO 380 fuels, the premium over IFO 180 is slightly less but still significant. At the present time, ULSFO fuels are used alone in ECAs and special precautions are needed during switchovers.
This will be less of a trouble if fuels with a sulfur content of 0.5 % do become promptly available as the switchover will be between fuels that are potentially much more alike in properties. electric potential compatibility issues may occur between fuels from different suppliers and this is one of the issues identified during the IMO discussions that is not so far resolved satisfactorily .
The fuels can be very different in characteristics from conventional fuel vegetable oil and this has led numerous organisations to issue steering to operators on their use. Lloyd ’ s Register issued the follow advice in its publication Using hybrid fuels for ECA-SOx complaisance .
Most of the new hybrid fuels are blended products and have some characteristics of distillate products. This means they may exert a ‘ clean ’ action, mobilising previously deposited asphaltenic material, potentially leading to increased filter load and other operational issues. It is therefore recommend that fuel tanks which will carry these newly fuel types are cleaned or at least cleared of the ‘ unpumpables ’ at the cooler bottom .
Despite their distillate characteristics, most of these hybrid fuels are peculiarly impressionable in nature, as exhibited by their pour degree ( the lowest temperature at which a fuel will continue to flow ). The claim pour steer may vary from product to product, but the usual principle is to maintain any fuel vegetable oil no lower than 7°C above its tested decant sharpen. These fuels therefore need to be stored and handled in systems with heat arrangements .
These types of fuels should not be stored in tanks which are subject to low external temperatures, such as a ship ’ sulfur side tanks. evening in tanks with inflame coils that maintain the bulk of the fuel as liquid, the geological formation and then breakaway of material at the cold interface could result in operational problems .
These fuels will besides need to be purified, taking into account their concentration ( gravity disk selection ) and viscosity for optimize preheat. Based on the tested viscosity and concentration of the fuels, the purifier manufacturer ’ south recommendations should be followed for the correct operational adjustments .
advice has besides been issued by classify societies, P & I Clubs, engine makers and the USCG on safe switch over procedures when entering ECAs. Much of the advice is a duplicate of that needed some years ago when the EU imposed a 0.1 % sulphur ceiling on fuel used during port stays within the EU but with many more ships and owners immediately affected, repeating it is credibly a wise precaution .
Distillate fuels
Distillate fuels such as DMA and DMB normally referred to as MGO and MDO respectively are frequently used in the main engines of most ships not running on ULSFO or fitted with scrubbers and manoeuver in ECAs and by smaller embark types as a normal fuel of choice. Distillates besides might most accessory engines on all embark types although some larger vessels will use IFO when possible .
They are available in standard and depleted sulphur versions with the former presently averaging 1 – 1.5 % sulphur and the moo sulphur version being ECA compliant at 0.1 %. Of the two independent types mentioned, MGO is the lightest and contains least sulfur. MDO is effectively MGO with a belittled proportion of residuals and is likely to have a higher sulfur content.
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Because they can be used in main engines normally run on HFO, distillates represent the easiest means of meeting the 0.5 % ball-shaped cap if handiness is the independent criteria. however, although readily available, distillates presently account for less than 25 % of all marine fuels used. They are besides heavily used in many non-marine sectors in far greater quantities .
An increased manipulation of distillates as a means to meet the 0.5 % sulphur cap will therefore bring the ship industry into competition with other users with no guarantee that sufficient supplies will be available .
Increased habit of distillate fuels for shipping by and large will besides ill impact those ships that have been specifically designed to operate with them and which are by and large employed in light sea trades and for local passenger and cargo ferries. The current cost of distillates is around 5-10 % higher than ULSFO in major bunkering centres such as Rotterdam. In the by MGO prices have been vitamin a much as double that of IFO380 .
Emulsified fuels
Water in fuels can be a problem and most engine makers traditionally recommend that water in HFO should be removed entirely by separation before entering the engine. This is largely due to the fact that guy fines are more easily transported in body of water and sea water in the fuel oil is a major generator of sodium. sodium, along with ash and vanadium is to be avoided where possible because compounds of the chemicals tend to promote mechanical wear, high temperature corrosion and the formation of deposits in the turbocharger and on the run down valves .
however, controlled consumption of water such as humid air travel, direct water injection and emulsion fuels can be beneficial in reducing levels of NOx and SOx. While the first two options are for locomotive makers to research and develop, the last option is receiving attention from some specialists in the fuel sector .
Emulsified fuels work by using a quantity of water in the fuel which has the effect of reducing the size of oil droplets compared to ceremonious fuels. This results in more accomplished combustion of the anoint and so increasing the energy delivered from a given quantity of fuel. Because the oil droplets surround a water core, the heat in the combustion bedroom besides causes the water to vaporize which breaks the oil down into even finer droplets. The body of water vapour itself adds energy much as it would in a steam engine .
Although the governor of an locomotive running on such fuel may open up more to meet the travel rapidly demand set by the bridge, the book of water system contained in the emulsion will more than cover the extra sum of emulsify fuel injected. consequently, the fuel spare will be adequate to the volume of water system contained in the fuel less the extra share of emulsify fuel injected .
One of the fuel specialist in this sphere is UK-based Quadrise Fuels International, Trials of the company ’ south Multiphase Superfine Atomized Residue ( MSAR ) fuel have been taking place in concurrence with AP Møller Maersk for a total of years and although the falling petroleum vegetable oil price has resulted in some negative sentiment by investors, the party claims MSAR would be commercially feasible even at crude prices of around $ 40 per barrel .
To date, Wärtsilä and MAN Diesel have both participated in the broadcast and the fuel has been tested on some of their two-stroke engines. Quadrise ’ randomness focus since mid-2014 has been on preparations for the “ Letters of no Objection ” ( LONO ) program, issued by the engine manufacturers. These manufacturers require operating data and a range of technical results from an extend and continuous practice of the fuel, in normal commercial operations, to provide the basis on which to issue the LONO .
The LONO qualification appraisal will involve inspecting versatile key components in the engine sporadically to confirm that the performance results are compatible with those experienced in earlier MSAR fuels trials and that nothing unexpected or debatable is apparent. The LONO appraisal menstruation is typically 4,000 hours of functional overhaul or circa nine months, although periodic assessments may reduce or lengthen this duration depending on results .
To meet the LONO program requirements, MSAR must be produced in higher quantities than has so far been the subject. To cater for a multi-vessel roll-out program, Quadrise considers it preferable and more economic to find a refine partner with both production and logistics economics which would optimise the roll-out program. In September 2015 Quadrise reported it had reached agreement with refiner group CEPSA to supply, install and commission a fabricate unit to produce MSAR emulsion fuel at the CEPSA San Rogue refinery close to Gilbraltar and that extended trials with Maersk began in early on 2016 .
In what must be considered a case of dangerous bad fortune, the vessel on which the trials were being carried out was involved in a collision in March 2017 and had to be sent for repairs. The vessel was then diverted to another military service meaning the test could not be completed .
Although the previous end to the trial has meant no LONO is likely to be approaching, all parties were obviously satisfied with the way the chase was progressing. A new trial is obviously planned but no details have even been announced .
Quadrise and Maersk are not the only organisations conducting trials with emulsify fuels. In New Zealand it was announced in May 2015 that as separate of KiwiRail ’ s commitment to greater sustainability, the Interislander ferry Arahura was trialling Fuel Oil Emulsion ( FOE ) technology in one of the transport ’ s auxiliary engines. The engineering is supplied by Blended Fuel Solutions NZ and is one that is already accepted .
The trial took plaza over three months and follows a two-day test in 2013 that showed reduced fuel consumption and emissions. It was independently monitored and included a month running on convention fuel to give a base course and pre and post internal engine inspections .
Although the trail was a success, falling fuel prices and a miss of environmental regulation in New Zealand for domestic ships have combined against a longer term use of the emulsify fuel .
Singapore-based Blue Ocean is another initiate in this sphere and can point to several references involving the likes of APL, Regent Seven Seas Cruises and NCL. The systems installed date back to 2011 and have demonstrated fuel savings of between 3-5 %. The savings have been verified by leading classification societies and approved by engine makers .
interest is growing in emulsify fuels and one new entrant to the sphere is SulNOx which has developed emulsifying equipment and is attempting to enter the marine market. company reports by SulNOx filed last year indicate that the fall in bunker prices has had a negative effect on the company ’ randomness plans and it is now attempting to find strategic partners to take the project ahead .
A factor that could limit the adoption of emulsify fuels produced on board is that excess equipment is needed and the water used should be either fresh water supplied from land which is an expense in itself or water produced onboard using a fresh body of water generator .
Non-oil fuels
presently the only alternative fuel to oils that is used in any quantity is liquefied natural gas ( LNG ). It is formed by cooling natural gas to a very low temperature ( -162°C ) until it condenses into a cryogenic liquid. In this state it has significantly higher energy content per volume – 1 liter of LNG contains approximately 600 litres of natural gas.
LNG carriers have been using LNG boil off from the cargo to run steam turbines for many years and in the end decade besides as fuel for burning in dual-fuel diesel engines. In addition to LNG carriers, a little number of ferries and offshore vessels have besides been built with or had retro-fitted engines that run on LNG .
In Europe in particular, LNG has been heavy promoted as an alternative to anoint for vessels operating in the Baltic and North Sea ECAs but despite one or two high profile projects, take-up has been minimal. Clearly some of the resistance stems from the fact that there is a luminary miss of memory and supply infrastructure in place. This seems to be changing lento but will hit an inevitable barrier if use by ship operators fails to accelerate .
LNG can besides be used with gasoline turbines american samoa well as burned in steam turbines, dual-fuel or pure accelerator burn engines. What is less well understand is that LNG is not a single-grade fuel. Its combustion properties and energy content vary with the come of methane contained in it. LNG offered for fuel might contain anything from 80 % -95 %. The LNG used for dual-fuel operation should contain high levels of methane ( preferably 95 % ). If LNG is ever used in meaning total of ships it seems likely that some form of grading system as used for oil fuels will need to be established.
Shipowners wishing to use LNG as fuel presently have two options. They can install a dual-fuel engine or fit a pure accelerator burn engine. however, engine makers are now building engines that have the ability to be converted to enable them to run on accelerator. MAN Diesel and Turbo exhibited such an engine at SMM in 2012. The engine in wonder was a 6L32/44 CR engine in the march of conversion to a 6L35/44DF. Another maker to offer conversion ready engines is caterpillar with its M43C models. Caterpillar says that 450 ships are now using the M43Ctype engine, which can be converted to an LNG-fuelled M46 DF engine .
The majority of these engines are installed on ships with german owners. About 190 of these ships are less than six years old and therefore in rationale suitable for conversion to LNG. Most of the ships are container feeders of similar design. There is therefore the likely for a standardized, cost-efficient retrofit of a bombastic issue of ships .
closely related to LNG, ethane is another fluent flatulence that can be used as a fuel. It has been tested in a Wärtsilä 50DF engine and MAN Diesel has secured a contract for three of its ME-LGI engines to be installed in a serial of ethylene natural gas carriers for a norwegian owner. The engines need to incorporate some detailed design changes to accommodate the higher pressure needed for ethane process. These include redesigned fuel valves, control block and shoot ampere well as some material changes .
In addition, both methanol and hydrogen have been suggested as possible fuels for future practice but little experience has so far been gained with either. methanol can be used in a diesel engine but hydrogen is more suited to powering fuel cells. Methanol is produced from a kind of sources chiefly natural gasoline although China produces boastfully quantities from char. It can even be manufactured by high gear blackmail hydrogenation of CO2. On the emissions side, there are reductions of around 99 % SOx, 60 % NOx and 95 % PM. importantly as regards future EEDI regulations CO2 can be reduced by 25 % compared to vegetable oil fuels. Another promise characteristic for use as a marine fuel is that it is not considered pollute and could consequently be stored in unprotected locations on board including in double bottoms.
however, it does have a moo flash point – 12°C and therefore storehouse tanks require inerting for safety reasons. This coupled with the fact that methanol burns with a very low flare temperature and a unmanageable to see light blasphemous fire makes fire detection difficult. A product of methanol combustion is formaldehyde which is highly toxic at certain levels .
Both LR and DNV GL have gulp rules on the use of methanol as a fuel. As a fluid, Methanol is not covered by the IMO ’ s IGF Code but it is expected that exercise will soon begin on drafting a Methanol Code based on the IGF Code. Until an internationally agreed Code has been adopted, any plans to use methanol will require a individual blessing from the flag state.
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In early 2015, the Stena Line ferry Stena Germanica had its Wärtsilä engine modified to run on methanol and has been operating on the fuel on its route between Sweden and Germany. According to Stena, emissions from methanol are roughly the lapp as for LNG, but the fuel is easier to process and does not place the same demands on infrastructure .
More vessels were added in 2016 as MAN Diesel had orders for seven methanol-fuelled two-stroke engines to power methanol carriers. The requirement to inert the fuel tanks in those vessels did not involve much in the way of supernumerary expense for the vessels since the cargo is already required to be treated in this manner and the equipment is therefore already on control panel. MAN ’ south engines are the ME-LGI type and operate on the Diesel principle which is seen as being more effective than the Otto cycle. The first ME-LGI engine was successfully demonstrated in March 2015 .
hydrogen is further off from commercialization although some little craft running on it do exist. It is broadly believed that hydrogen ’ second best gamble of adoption is in conjunction with fuel cells for which much was promised a ten ago. Considering that companies which have been experimenting with fuel cells for marine use seem to be diminishing in phone number, it has to be said that practice of the engineering in the short circuit term is unlikely and is most likely further down the line than was once envisaged. even so it has its proponents and is regularly discussed as a pollution free alternative to more conventional fuels .
