Lineage [ 4 ]
The Ming Dynasty had a full of sixteen emperors. This article will focus on the changes that took space during predominate of the follow Emperors : Hongwu ( first emperor ), Yongle ( third emperor butterfly ), Yingzong ( sixth emperor butterfly ) and Chongzhen ( sixteenth emperor ) .
Below is a full list of Ming Dynasty Emperors :
First Emperor : 1368 – 1398
Hongwu Emperor, Zhu Yuanzhang ( Taizu ) Image Source
Second Emperor : 1399 – 1402
Jianwen Emperor, Zhu Yunwen ( Huidi ) Image Source
Third Emperor : 1403 – 1424
Yongle Emperor, Zhu Di ( Chengzu ) Image Source
Forth Emperor : 1425
Hongxi Emperor, Zhu Gaochi ( Renzong ) Image Source
Fifth Emperor : 1426 – 1435
Xuande Emperor, Zhu Zhanji ( Xuanzong ) Image Source
Sixth Emperor : 1436 – 1449 & 1457 – 1464
Zhengtong and Tianshun Emperor, Zhu Qizhen ( Yingzong ) Image Source
Seventh Emperor : 1450 – 1456
Jingtai Emperor, Zhu Qiyu ( Jingdi ) Image Source
Eighth Emperor : 1465 – 1487
Chenghua Emperor, Zhu Jianshen ( Zianzong ) Image Source
Nineth Emperor : 1488 – 1505
Hongzhi Emperor, Zhu Youcheng ( Xiaozong ) Image Source
Tenth Emperor : 1506 – 1521
Zhengde Emperor, Zhu Houshao ( Wuzong ) Image Source
Eleventh Emperor : 1522 – 1566
Jiajing Emperor, Zhu Haucong ( Shizong ) Image Source
Twelfth Emperor : 1567 – 1572
Longqing Emperor, Zhu Zaiji Image Source
Thirteenth Emperor : 1573 – 1620
Wanli Emperor, Zhu Yijun ( Shenzong ) Image Source
Fourteenth Emperor : 1620
Taichang Emperor, Zhu Changluo ( Guangzong ) Image Source
Fifteenth Emperor : 1621 – 1627
Tianqi Emperor, Zhu Youjiao ( Xizong ) Image Source
Sixteenth Emperor : 1628 – 1644
Chongzhen Emperor, Zhu Youjian ( Sizong ) Image Source
The rise of the Ming Dynasty
improving until 1368, mongolian rulers held the Yuan Dynasty in China. [ 5 ] In mongol Law, assorted groups of autochthonal taiwanese people, particularly the Han, were considered ‘ lower course ’. chinese groups were considered ‘ dregs ’ in the sociable decree. many taiwanese peasants were enslaved in bombastic numbers, had their lands confiscated, and were excluded from governmental positions. [ 6 ] Non-mongolian foreigners, such as Marco Polo, the Persian Ahmad and the Uighur Sengge, were welcomed as patrons in yuan China. It could be argued that this cordial reception was not shown towards chinese locals. Internal class tension was exacerbated in the 1340s by natural disasters and storm conscription of Han peasants for labor. [ 7 ] Various rebel groups began to assemble and prepare for a rebellion. Zhu Yuanzhang was one of the chief leaders of these rebel groups. He did not come from an affluent background, and spend years begging for a buddhist monastery [ 8 ]. At the time, Yuan militia burned down the monastery in an attack to stop an impend rebellion. Yuanzhang worked his way up through rebel ranks in 1352 A.D., when he joined a group related to the White Lotus Society. In 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang initiated a rebellion and captured Beijing. [ 9 ] This marked the official end of mongol control over China. Yuanzhang began the Ming Dynasty and took the title of Emperor Taizu, or the Hongwu Emperor. [ 10 ]
Government and Society
At the time, the Ming Dynasty had the most effective central bureaucracy in the populace. Emperors were authoritarian rulers who had absolute might over all aspects of life sentence in their conglomerate. During the Ming Dynasty, the civil serve organization was perfected. Officials entered top levels of the bureaucracy by passing a government examination [ 11 ]. During Emperor Taizu ’ south reign, an office called the Censorate ( Yushati ) was made disjoined to the politics. They investigated official cases of corruption and mismanage [ 12 ]. Each state had its own agency that was attached to the central government. alternatively of having a premier minister, the Emperor took personal control over the politics and was assisted by a Grand Secretariat, besides known as a Neige [ 13 ]. Castrated men, known as Eunuchs, were employed as advisors for the emperor butterfly. These advisors held a high side in the bureaucratic rank. By the sixteenth Century, weak Ming emperors were often dominated by their advisors. [ 14 ] The governmental social organization of the Ming Dynasty lasted until China ’ s imperial arrangement was abolished in 1911. [ 15 ]
During the begin of his predominate, Emperor Taizu enforced hard-and-fast military discipline and reorganised the army to establish the ‘ Brocade Guards ’. These guards operated aboard spies and secret agents to purge corrupt officials. [ 16 ] Forms of punishment were severe and frequently included tattooing, severing of organs and expurgation, however, near the goal of Taizu ’ second reign, these were outlawed in favor of corporal punishment and cane. [ 17 ] In 1380 A.D., Taizu revised the legal code to ensure that his office could not be challenged in court. He besides launched a series of nation and tax reforms. [ 18 ] The palace guard launched an internal investigation 1380 A.D., this lasted for 14 years. A full of 30 000 executions were conducted during this clock time. [ 19 ]
The role of women
Women in Ming China had the ability to become property owners, if they were feeder enough. They besides had access to literature when it was widely published. In the seventeenth Century, an anthology of chinese poetry included poems from vitamin a many as 1000 women. Writer Li Yu is an exemplar of an early on feminist, arguing that women should be adequate to men. [ 20 ]
In reality, women in Ming China lived domestic lives and bear children. male children were more important than female children, and a common practice of killing female babies at birth was introduce. [ 21 ] This practice was formally discouraged but unofficially practiced. Status was powerfully connected to class. therefore, rural peasant women worked in the lapp conditions as men. urban women, on the other pass, were employed in the fields of weaving and embellishment. [ 22 ] Upper class women were subjected to the practice of foot-binding, in an try to keep their feet small and womanly. When women ’ sulfur feet were bound, their bones would much break and they could only make small strides when walking. [ 23 ]
Cultural Achievements
In 1406, Emperor Yongle transferred the capital of China from Nanjing to Beijing [ 24 ]. Yongle ordered the construction an imperial palace complex called the Forbidden City, which remains the world ’ second largest to date. In 1420, the Forbidden City was occupied by the court. [ 25 ] The capital became a cultural hub where different types of craft took invest. Decorative techniques, including cloisonné, lacquerwork and furniture sculpt besides reached a top out during this clock. [ 26 ] Ornamental carvings from woodwind, porcelain, ivory and jade green were some features during this time. cosmetic ceramics that used different techniques were a brand. [ 27 ] Porcelain was one of the Ming Dynasty ’ sulfur bets exports. porcelain is created by grinding china-stone and mixing it with china-clay. This mix is then baked until it becomes translucent. [ 28 ] In 1368, an imperial factory was created in Jingdezhen to produce ceramics for the imperial court. [ 29 ] A coarse ceramic proficiency of enamel painting combined with a blue sky underglaze, called ‘ blue and white ’ was imitated China ’ s neighbor countries. This technique was former adopted by european countries, although most of the porcelain was still produced in the Jingdezhen factory. [ 30 ]
A blue-and-white porcelain cup of tea with a dragon. Image reference
Beijing was the main bureaucratic and military center, while towns like Nanjing became celebrated for their social life and festivals. [ 31 ] It is suggested that cultural achievements of the Ming Dynasty were characterized by a button-down and ‘ inward-looking ’ attitude. [ 32 ] urban culture grew as taiwanese cities expanded. Under the Ming regimen, literary examinations were re-established. This, combined with the growth in urban acculturation, resulted in a higher literacy rate. consequently, a literacy boom emerged during the Ming Dynasty. Books became low-cost for commoners. religious books, confucian literature and civil service examinations guides were democratic. [ 33 ]
Writers of common literature made significant contributions to novels and drama. many of the full-length novels were adaptations of ancient report cycles that stemmed from centuries of oral tradition. [ 34 ] Some authoritative novels include The Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Water Margin, and Journey to the West [ 35 ]. To accompany these books, woodblock example was implemented. This method acting allowed for publishers to easily reproduce images. It was besides a trademark that distinguished publishers from each other. [ 36 ]
An image of chinese woodblock print. Image reservoir
traditional chinese play rehearse was banned during the Song dynasty, and led the commit underground and far south. During the Ming Dynasty, this was brought spinal column. Tang Xianzu was a dramatist that was democratic during the Ming Dynasty. [ 37 ] The musical dramaturgy forms of chuanqi and kunqu were implemented. These forms were adapted to form fuller-length operas. furthermore, painting traditions of the Ming Dynasty can be categorized according to ‘ literati painting ’ of the Wu school and ‘ professional academician ’ paint of the Zhe school. [ 38 ] Individual artists became democratic during this time, leaving traces of their own personal styles in their oeuvre .
Travel, trade and scientific achievements
China sent their trade goods to westerly Asia and Europe via the Silk Road. This was a 6 400 kilometre overland travel that ended at the Mediterranean sea. [ 39 ] Another manner that they traded was via ships on the ocean. chinese junks were singular ships that were used from equally early as the fifth Century AD. [ 40 ] China ’ s beginning imperial treasure fleets were commissioned by the Mongols who held the Yuan Dynasty, between 1271 and 1368. [ 41 ] The Chinese hoped to discover newly lands and to establish fresh trading partners. They often returned with exotic animals, spices, bone and prisoners of war. [ 42 ]
This fleet was extended by Emperor Yongle during the Ming Dynasty. Emperor Yongle invested a bombastic total of money into extending the flit. taiwanese junks had two prevailing features : a yuloh oar for steering and stiffened sails supported by bamboo battens. [ 43 ] The yuloh rudder allowed ships to steer and turn, without having to take the rudder out of the water. Legend suggests that this design was inspired by the way that fish use their tails to thrust themselves forward [ 44 ]. Junks were huge, with a length of 122m and width of 46m .
An oil painting of Zheng He ’ mho fleet. Image source
The Chinese fleet reached its bill in the fifteenth Century, under the leadership of Muslim eunuch, Admiral Zheng He. [ 45 ] He conducted seven nautical expeditions. Emperor Yongle instructed Admiral Zheng He to explore the oceans in search of goods. [ 46 ] Between 1405 and 1433, representatives were sent to other countries to ask for protection in money or goods to show that they recognised the power of the chinese Empire. Zheng He ’ second fleet reached a total of 37 countries, expanding China ’ mho influence along asian ocean routes. [ 47 ] China ’ s trade wind potential and passive voyages left a mark on the countries that they visited, demonstrating China ’ s barter potential and naval potency. [ 48 ] Although Zheng He is often depicted as an ‘ ambassador of friendship ’ who initiated touch between China and other countries, revisionist historians suggest that his voyages were attempts to colonise China ’ sulfur neighbours. [ 49 ] The intention behind Emperor Yongle ’ s instruction was to establish conducive or vassal states in the East, and expand China ’ s hegemonic rule. [ 50 ] If China had a pax Ming ( a menstruation of peace in East Asia ), the earth would have seen the chinese emperor butterfly as a legitimate rule of the East. [ 51 ] Zheng He ’ second fleets were accompanied by military personnel that established depots in Southeast Asia, frankincense allowing them to control the waterways. [ 52 ] Chinese engineering was far more advance than anything in Europe at the time. The voyages of the Ming Dynasty demonstrated China ’ south technological and navigational ability to the universe in the fifteenth Century. [ 53 ] Because of this, it was believed that China would discover the ‘ new global ’ before Christopher Columbus. [ 54 ]
foreign countries were impress by chinese inventions and tradeable goods. chinese inventions included the magnetic circumnavigate, composition, the barrow, suspension bridges, gunpowder, porcelain, chattel type and the mechanical clock. The most normally traded items from Zheng He ’ s fleet were silks and spices. [ 55 ] Zheng He ’ second fleet used a ace chart and charismatic compasses to navigate the oceans. This technology allowed for more accurate travel towards their destinations. Zheng He departed for his final voyage in 1431 and visited Indochina, Sri Lanka ( once Ceylon ), India, Iran, Zanzibar, the Red Sea and Java. [ 56 ] This ocean trip would mark the last of the Chinese fleet, and when it returned in 1433, China ended its expansionist policies .
A diagram of Ming Dynasty mariner ’ s compass. Image beginning
Looking inwards after 1433
During the inaugural five decades of the Ming Dynasty, The Mongols were driven north to what is nowadays known as Mongolia. [ 57 ] Following this, the northerly boundary line a place of increasing menace. After Emperor Yongle ’ s death in 1424, the Ming Dynasty became extremely vulnerable to outside invasion. [ 58 ] In 1449, Mongol-speaking Oirat peoples invaded China. The emperor butterfly at the fourth dimension, Yingzong, led an abortive counterattack. Emperor Yingzong was ambushed at Tumu. [ 59 ] As a resultant role, he was taken hostage. This incidental caused a shift from expansionist policy to a defensive frontier strategy. Yingzong ’ randomness China lacked the military resources to defend against the Mongols. In 1474, a barrier over the Qin Dynasty walls were built out of brick and rock. This barrier became known as the Great Wall of China. [ 60 ] .The Great Wall was strengthened and maintained throughout the Ming Dynasty .
There were besides struggles with groups from other nationalities. To the south of China, early Ming Emperors attempted to invade Northern Vietnam, but were abortive. [ 61 ] The boundary lines between China and Vietnam remained the same, and Ming Emperors stopped their attempts to push far confederacy. The mobile Jurchen people of the northeast placed press on the Ming armies until they gained the district right until the Great Wall. [ 62 ] The Jurchen people stemmed from the Jin dynasty and consisted of both Mongols and Chinese. Jurchen drawing card, Huang Taiji, changed the appoint of the Jurchen people to the Manchus and introduced taiwanese practices to his people. [ 63 ] Across the ocean, japanese and taiwanese pirates initiated costal raids, however, these did not threaten the control of the Ming Dynasty [ 64 ]
The Great Wall of China Image Source
Trade with the West & Decline of Ming Dynasty
By 1514, portuguese merchants had reached China. Within the next 35 years, a trade station was established at Macao. [ 65 ] chinese porcelain became very popular in 1604. At the time, portuguese ships carrying chinese porcelain were captured by the Dutch. [ 66 ] The porcelain was later put up for auction in Europe, starting a craze. By 1557, China ’ s tribute craft system shifted towards maritime trade. [ 67 ] This think of that China focused on producing goods for export and allowed a european presence in their empire. In following years, China ’ s mercantile relationship with the west would strengthen .
During the former sixteenth Century, the bureaucratic structures of the Ming Dynasty began to weaken. Some inner factors that contributed to the decline include conflict within government, hindrance by palace eunuch, factional fight between civil officials and weakening imperialism. [ 68 ] It is suggested that many of the emperors after Yingzong were dominated by their advisors, causing an oversight of many important issues. [ 33 ] In April 1644, maverick leader Li Zicheng took control of Beijing. This caused the Chongzhen Emperor to commit suicide, thereby becoming the death Ming emperor butterfly. [ 69 ] Following this, a deepen in leadership happened again when Li Zicheng initiated negotiations with Wu Sangui, a brawny northerly air force officer, for the Manchus to pass through the bang-up wall. [ 70 ] This was a black mistake, as the Manchus usurped command and invaded Beijing. The Ming Dynasty was succeeded by the Qing Dynasty, with Huang Taiji becoming the new emperor butterfly. The Qing Dynasty lasted until the abolition of imperial rule in 1911. [ 71 ]
This content was originally produced for the SAHO classroom by
Ilse Brookes, Amber Fox-Martin & Simone van der Colff
[ 1 ] J. Bottaro & P. Visser & N. Worden, Oxford in Search of History : Grade 10 Learner ’ s Book .
[ 2 ] Author Unknown : “ Ming Dynasty, ” Brittanica.com [ on-line ], available at hypertext transfer protocol : //www.britannica.com/topic/Ming-dynasty-Chinese-history ( access 30 March 2020 )
[ 3 ] B. B. Peterson : “ The Ming Voyages of Chen Ho ( Zheng He ), The Great Circle, ( 16 ), ( 1 ), 1994, p. 43 .
[ 4 ] S. H. Tsai : The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty, p. twelve .
[ 5 ] A. Hart-Davis ( erectile dysfunction ) : history : The Definitive Visual Guide from the dawn of civilization to the present day, p. 166 .
[ 6 ] C.O. Hucker : The Ming Dynasty Its Origins and Evolving Institutions, p. 4 .
[ 7 ] A. Hart-Davis ( erectile dysfunction ) : history : The Definitive Visual Guide from the dawn of civilization to the present day, p. 166 .
[ 8 ] Author Unknown : “ Ming Dynasty, ” History.com [ on-line ], available at hypertext transfer protocol : //www.history.com/topics/ancient-china/ming-dynasty ( Accessed : 20 June 2020 )
[ 9 ] Ibid .
[ 10 ] A. Hart-Davis ( erectile dysfunction ) : history : The Definitive Visual Guide from the dawn of civilization to the confront day, p. 166 .
[ 11 ] Author Unknown, “ Ming Dynasty, ” Brittanica.com [ on-line ], available at hypertext transfer protocol : //www.britannica.com/topic/Ming-dynasty-Chinese-history ( access 30 March 2020 )
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[ 12 ] Ibid .
[ 13 ] Ibid .
[ 14 ] A. Hart-Davis ( erectile dysfunction ) : history : The Definitive Visual Guide from the dawn of refinement to the confront day, p. 167 .
[ 15 ] Author Unknown : “ Ming Dynasty, ” Brittanica.com [ on-line ], available at hypertext transfer protocol : //www.britannica.com/topic/Ming-dynasty-Chinese-history ( access 30 March 2020 )
[ 16 ] L. Yang, Y. Wang, S. Yang : “ A Probe into the Anti-Corruption Mechanism behind Ming Dynasty ’ s Appointment of Touring Censorial Inspectors and the Causes for Its failure, ” Scientific Research Open Access Chinese Studies, ( 3 ), ( 5 ), 2016, p. 38 .
[ 17 ] S.H. Tsai : The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty, p. 17 .
[ 18 ] A. Hart-Davis ( erectile dysfunction ) : history : The Definitive Visual Guide from the dawn of civilization to the present day, p. 166 .
[ 19 ] Author Unknown : “ Ming Dynasty, ” History.com [ on-line ], available at hypertext transfer protocol : //www.history.com/topics/ancient-china/ming-dynasty ( Accessed : 20 June 2020 )
[ 20 ] J. Bottaro & P. Visser & N. Worden, Oxford in Search of History : Grade 10 Learner ’ s Book .
[ 21 ] Ibid .
[ 22 ] Ibid .
[ 23 ] Ibid .
[ 24 ] A. Hart-Davis ( erectile dysfunction ) : history : The Definitive Visual Guide from the click of culture to the present sidereal day, p. 166 .
[ 25 ] Author Unknown : “ Forbidden City, ” Brittanica.com [ on-line ], available at hypertext transfer protocol : //www.britannica.com/topic/Forbidden-City ( access 30 March 2020 )
[ 26 ] Author Unknown, “ Ming Dynasty, ” Brittanica.com [ on-line ], available at hypertext transfer protocol : //www.britannica.com/topic/Ming-dynasty-Chinese-history ( access 30 March 2020 )
[ 27 ] Ibid .
[ 28 ] Author Unknown : “ Ming Dynasty, ” History.com [ on-line ], available at hypertext transfer protocol : //www.history.com/topics/ancient-china/ming-dynasty ( Accessed : 20 June 2020 )
[ 29 ] Ibid .
[ 30 ] Author Unknown : “ Ming Dynasty, ” Brittanica.com [ on-line ], available at hypertext transfer protocol : //www.britannica.com/topic/Ming-dynasty-Chinese-history ( access 30 March 2020 )
[ 31 ] A. Hart-Davis ( erectile dysfunction ) : history : The Definitive Visual Guide from the dawn of culture to the introduce day, p. 166 .
[ 32 ] Author Unknown : “ Ming Dynasty, ” Brittanica.com [ on-line ], available at hypertext transfer protocol : //www.britannica.com/topic/Ming-dynasty-Chinese-history ( access 30 March 2020 )
[ 33 ] Author Unknown : “ Ming Dynasty, ” History.com [ on-line ], available at hypertext transfer protocol : //www.history.com/topics/ancient-china/ming-dynasty ( Accessed : 20 June 2020 )
[ 34 ] Ibid .
[ 35 ] A. Hart-Davis ( erectile dysfunction ) : history : The Definitive Visual Guide from the dawn of civilization to the present day, p. 166 .
[ 36 ] Author Unknown : “ Ming Dynasty, ” History.com [ on-line ], available at hypertext transfer protocol : //www.history.com/topics/ancient-china/ming-dynasty ( Accessed : 20 June 2020 )
[ 37 ] Author Unknown : “ Ming Dynasty, ” History.com [ on-line ], available at hypertext transfer protocol : //www.history.com/topics/ancient-china/ming-dynasty ( Accessed : 20 June 2020 )
[ 38 ] Author Unknown : “ Ming Dynasty, ” Brittanica.com [ on-line ], available at hypertext transfer protocol : //www.britannica.com/topic/Ming-dynasty-Chinese-history ( access 30 March 2020 )
[ 39 ] J. Bottaro & P. Visser & N. Worden, Oxford in Search of History : Grade 10 Learner ’ s Book .
[ 40 ] B. Lavery : ship : 5000 years of nautical gamble, p. 61 .
[ 41 ] Ibid .
[ 42 ] J. Bottaro & P. Visser & N. Worden, Oxford in Search of History : Grade 10 Learner ’ s Book, Oxford University Press, South Africa .
[ 43 ] B. Lavery : ship : 5000 years of maritime adventure, p. 61 .
[ 44 ] Ibid .
[ 45 ] A. Hart-Davis ( erectile dysfunction ) : history : The Definitive Visual Guide from the dawn of civilization to the present day, p. 167 .
[ 46 ] B. Lavery : embark : 5000 years of maritime adventure, p. 61 .
[ 47 ] A. Hart-Davis ( erectile dysfunction ) : history : The Definitive Visual Guide from the dawn of culture to the present day, p. 167 .
[ 48 ] B. Lavery : ship : 5000 years of nautical venture, p. 61 .
[ 49 ] G. Wade : “ The Zheng He Voyages : A Reassessment, ” Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, ( 78 ), ( 1 ), 2005, p. 44 .
[ 50 ] B. B. Peterson : “ The Ming Voyages of Chen Ho ( Zheng He ), The Great Circle, ( 16 ), ( 1 ), 1994, p. 43 .
[ 51 ] G. Wade : “ The Zheng He Voyages : A Reassessment, ” Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, ( 78 ), ( 1 ), 2005, p. 44 .
[ 52 ] Ibid. p. 47 .
[ 53 ] B. B. Peterson : “ The Ming Voyages of Chen Ho ( Zheng He ), The Great Circle, ( 16 ), ( 1 ), 1994, p. 43 .
[ 54 ] Ibid .
[ 55 ] B. Lavery : embark : 5000 years of nautical adventure, p. 61 .
[ 56 ] Ibid .
[ 57 ] Author Unknown, “ Ming Dynasty, ” Brittanica.com [ on-line ], available at hypertext transfer protocol : //www.britannica.com/topic/Ming-dynasty-Chinese-history ( access 30 March 2020 )
[ 58 ] A. Hart-Davis ( erectile dysfunction ) : history : The Definitive Visual Guide from the dawn of civilization to the present day, p. 166 .
[ 59 ] Ibid .
[ 60 ] Ibid. p. 167 .
[ 61 ] Author Unknown, “ Ming Dynasty, ” Brittanica.com [ on-line ], available at hypertext transfer protocol : //www.britannica.com/topic/Ming-dynasty-Chinese-history ( access 30 March 2020 )
[ 62 ] A. Hart-Davis ( erectile dysfunction ) : history : The Definitive Visual Guide from the dawn of civilization to the present day, p. 240 .
[ 63 ] Ibid .
[ 64 ] Author Unknown, “ Ming Dynasty, ” Brittanica.com [ on-line ], available at hypertext transfer protocol : //www.britannica.com/topic/Ming-dynasty-Chinese-history ( access 30 March 2020 )
[ 65 ] A. Hart-Davis ( erectile dysfunction ) : history : The Definitive Visual Guide from the dawn of culture to the award day, p. 167 .
[ 66 ] Ibid .
[ 67 ] Author Unknown : “ Ming Dynasty, ” History.com [ on-line ], available at hypertext transfer protocol : //www.history.com/topics/ancient-china/ming-dynasty ( Accessed : 20 June 2020 )
[ 68 ] A. Hart-Davis ( erectile dysfunction ) : history : The Definitive Visual Guide from the dawn of civilization to the present day, p. 167.
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[ 69 ] Ibid. p. 240 .
[ 70 ] Ibid .
[ 71 ] Author Unknown, “ Ming Dynasty, ” Brittanica.com [ on-line ], available at hypertext transfer protocol : //www.britannica.com/topic/Ming-dynasty-Chinese-history ( access 30 March 2020 )
