In order to provide your country ’ s consumers with the goods they wish, you need to import some of them and to pay foreign producers for the goods and for their transportation. The command money can be obtained by exporting your own goods and services.
Roman individuals could export Roman goods as a return cargo when sailing back to foreign countries. The Roman country could provide the ‘ serve ’ of military auspices of provinces within the empire, receiving a tribute for this service .
How trade?
Trust between buyers and sellers is required, hence regular trade contacts are necessity, and therefore repeat of trade routes. To be ‘ professional ’, you need to specialise : choose your goods, choose your trade cities and routes, choose your trade contacts [ 1 ]. That will be ‘ your ’ trade network. The nodes of each network may be boastfully inter-regional ports ( ‘ hubs ’ ) or smaller regional, or evening local, ports.
Trade hubs
According to Wikipedia, a hub is the cardinal share of a steering wheel that connects the axle to the wheel itself. many expressions use the term for a literal or figurative cardinal structure connecting to a periphery. A transport hub is a place where cargo is exchanged from one transport mood to another. With the growth of containerisation, intermodal freight transport has become more effective .
nowadays, there are several major nodal points for maritime traffic which are related to the network of chief streams of dealings :
- consumer goods transported in containers from China, Korea and Japan to Europe via the Suez Canal and to the US west coast via the Pacific Ocean;
- energy such as oil, Liquid Natural Gas (LNG) transported in bulk from the Middle East, to China, Korea and Japan and many other countries;
- other raw materials such as coal and iron ore are also transported in bulk from Africa, Australia and South America to many countries.
The major nodal points, now called ‘ hub ’, are therefore located in Europe ( Rotterdam, Hamburg ), in USA ( Los Angeles, San Francisco, New York, New Orleans ), in Asia, ( Shanghai, Hong Kong, Busan, Yokahama, Singapore ) [ 2 ] .
Alexandria was the “ greatest department store of the earth ”, air combat command. to Strabo ( Geogr. 17, 1, 13 ) : Goods were imported from, and exported to, South Arabia, East Africa and India [ 3 ], and paid for with gold and silver bullion ; they were taxed at 25 % by the Roman state, thereby providing a hearty part of its full income :
- Some goods, such as perfumes and dyed silk, were transformed and manufactured in Alexandria, thereby adding great value to the imported goods;
- Goods were exported to Rome and other cities of the empire: not only exotic spices and goods from beyond the Red Sea, but also vast quantities of grain produced in Egypt.
Alexandria was a hub of the Roman economy. Additional nodes of a large-mesh Roman barter network might be located at Gades ( Baetica, for garum, salted fish, olive petroleum ) and at Carthago ( Proconsular Africa, for wheat and olive petroleum ). This coarse net shows 3 lines converging on Rome. The interrogate is whether finer-mesh networks might be added to the coarse one by including nodal points of smaller importance [ 4 ] .
Data base analysis
Let ’ s elaborate on this with an analysis of our database on ancient ports : we know of around 5500 ancient coastal settlements, out of which around 2000 are explicitly mentioned as ports by ancient authors :
Ancient ports mentioned explicitly by at least one ancient author.
This map has no pretention of accuracy; it just intends to show concentrations of ports; more accurate locations are available on Google Earth maps shown on: www.AncientPortsAntiques.com
A corpus of 87 ancient authors from 1500 BC to 500 AD has been analysed, searching for the parole ‘ port ’ in the 19th c. french translations available on the network ( chiefly www.remacle.org ), ( see volume II, Citations ). Each author is counted lone once for each port, even if he mentioned the interface several times in several books or chapters .
obviously, diverse reasons motivated ancient authors to mention these ports : historical ( military, naval ), commercial ( trade, department store ), geographic ( description of domain and peoples ) or sailors following the coasts. In the movie above, trips like those of Arrian on the Black Sea or the Stadiasmus can about be distinguished.
Furthermore, ancient authors may sometimes have been slightly egocentric when describing only their own part of the world, like Pausanias in Greece, which may have led to ‘ zooming ’ effects in some areas.
Conversely, some areas were not much mentioned by ancient authors, like Hispania, Lusitania, Gaul, and it can not be said if that is because there were no ports ( which is surely out of true ) or because these slightly remote areas were of lesser interest to ancient Greek and Roman authors. Anyway, a assiduity of ports mentioned by ancient authors can be seen around the Aegean Sea .
promote psychoanalysis of the data base shows :
closely 1000 ports are mentioned by only one ancient generator.
closely 300 are mentioned by two ancient authors .
Detailed results of the database analysis.
about 100 ports are mentioned by five or more ancient authors. These places are listed below in a clockwise ranking around the Mediterranean, with the number of authors mentioning it in brackets :
- Hibernia (Isle of Ireland) (5)
- Gades (5)
- Carthago Nova (5)
- Massalia (5)
- Monoeci (Monaco) (5)
- Portus Pisanus (6)
- Aithalia (Isle of Elba) (5)
- Portus Augusti Ostiensis (over 10) and Ostia (7)
- Antium (5)
- Caiete (5)
- Misenum (6) and Puteoli (5)
- Rhegium (7)
- Zankle (Messina) (9)
- Syracuse (over 10)
- Crotone (5)
- Lilybaion (5)
- Tarentum (7)
- Hydruntum (Otrante) (6)
- Brindes (9)
- Corcyra (8) and Casiope (5) (Isle of Corfu)
- Glykys Limen (5)
- Nisea (5)
- Kytlene (5)
- Pylos (5)
- Gytheion (7)
- Skandeia (Isle of Kythera) (7)
- Nauplia-Argos (5)
- Lechaion-Corinth (10) and Sicyon (8)
- Kenchreai-Corinth (over 10)
- Salamis (Isle of Salamis) (6)
- Piraeus (over 10)
- Phaleron (7) and Munychia (5)
- Aegina (6)
- Aulis (6), Chalkis (5) and Eretria (5) (Isle of Evia)
- Thasos (Isle of Thasos) (5)
- Abydos (10) and Sestos (6)
- Byzantium (6)
- Portus Symbolorum (Crimea) (5)
- Sindicos (Anapa) (5)
- Sinop (6) and Armene (5)
- Calpe (5)
- Cyzikos (5)
- Sigeion (5)
- Delos (Isle of Delos) (10)
- Naxos (Isle of Naxos) (5)
- Tenedos (Isle of Tenedos) (8) and Troy (6)
- Mytilene (Isle of Lesbos) (over 10)
- Phokeia (6)
- Elaia (5)
- Chios (Isle of Chios) (over 10)
- Ephesus (10)
- Pythagoreion (isle of Samos) (over 10)
- Miletos (9)
- Kos (Isle of Kos) (5)
- Knidos (7)
- Rhodes (over 10)
- Kaunos (5)
- Patara (8)
- Korikos (Kizkalesi) (5)
- Phaselis (5)
- Paphos (Isle of Cyprus) (5)
- Salamis (Isle ofCyprus) (5)
- Sidon (6)
- Tyr (6)
- Alexandria (over 10)
- Paretonius (5),
- Menelaus (5),
- Neapolis-Leptis (5)
- Cercenna (6)
- Carthago (8) and Utica (5)
- Melite (Isle of Malta) (6)
The list places are shown on the function below ( green dots ) together with the four ‘ chief hub ’ ( black dots ). The listed places are reasonably concentrated in an area between Rome and Rhodes covering the southerly partially of Italy, Greece, the Aegean Sea and Asia Minor. It can not be denied that this area was the most active area both for trade wind and for naval operations during a millennium from the 5th c. BC to the fifth c. AD .
eminence that no prison term inning was defined, hence greek hub of the fifth c. BC are interracial with imperial Roman hub of the 1st c. AD. Had we restricted the time frame to e.g. the 6th to 4th c. BC, we would have seen Piraeus ( over 10 ), Emporion ( Spain ) ( 4 ), and Naucratis ( Egypt ) ( 1 ) as chief hub. Had we taken the 3rd and 2nd c. BC, we would have mentioned Delos ( 10 ) .
Trade networks in the Roman Mediterranean Sea: Black dots are main hubs: Rome, Alexandria, Carthage, Gades; Green dots are explicitly mentioned as ports by five or more ancient authors.
It must be admitted that the above overture based on the number of ancient authors mentioning places does not show the trade networks we would expect intuitively because major cities are missing ( Tarraco, Narbo, places on the Adriatic, on the Black Sea, in northern Africa ) .
Imported goods
How can we far study these networks ? We may look into transport, we may distinguish different historical periods, we may search ancient texts … we may study commodities [ 10 ], i.e. try to find out from where they come and where they go ( by and large to Rome ! ) .
A literature survey yielded the following ( more data is provided on the latest update database as an xls board ) :
| GOODS | ROMAN IMPORTS from: |
| Minerals: | |
| white marble, alabaster |
Italy (Luna, Volterra), Spain (Ebro valley), Attica (Mount Pentelikon), Naxos, Thasos, Marmara |
| granite | France i.a. |
| pozzolana | Pozzuoli |
| obsidian | Anatolia (central & eastern), Melos, Gyali, Pantelleria, Sardinia (Mt Arci), Lipari, Ponza (Palmarola) |
| turquoise | Sinai (Wadi Maghara, Serabit el-Khadim) |
| lapis lazuli | Syria (from Afghanistan/Bactria) |
| malachite | Cairo (Maadi), Negev (Timna) |
| amethyst | Aswan (Wadi el-Hudi) |
| topaz | Red Sea (St. John’s Island) |
| Metals (ingots): | |
| gold (& electrum) | Ireland (Wicklow Mountain), Britain (Dolaucothi), France (Limousin, Vaulry), Spain NW (Laza, Caurel-Quiroga, Los Ancares, Las Médulas-Teleno-Maragateria-Llamas de Cabrera, Villablino-Las Omanas, Ibias-Tineo, Rio Carrion), Lusitania (Valongo Paredes, Tres Minas-Jales-Boticas), Dalmatia (Crvena Zemlja, Mracaj), Thrace (Pautalia), Dacia (many places around Rosia Montana in Transylvania), Georgia (R Phase), Turkey (Bakla Tepe NW of Ephesos), Cyprus, Nubia |
| silver | Britain (Charterhouse), Lusitania (Aljustrel), Spain (Rio Tinto, Palazuelos, Diogenes, Malaga, Cartagena, Linares), Sardinia (Iglesiente, Domusnovas), Carthage, Dalmatia (Srebrenica), Attica (Laurion), Thrace (Pautalia), Turkey (Ordu, Lesbos, Troad, Milet, Bodrum, Mersin) |
| copper | Ireland (Great Orme, Ross Island, Cork, Wicklow), Britain (Beauport Park, Llanymynech, Nantyrarian), Asturias (Aramo), Lusitania (Aljustrel, Sto Estevao), Huelva (Rio Tinto, Sotiel Coronado), Dalmatia (Majdanpek, Belovode), Attica (Laurion), Thrace (Pautalia, Burgas), Turkey (Trabzon area), Petra (wadi Feynan), Negev (Timna valley, wadi Arabah), Cyprus (Kalavasos, Soli & Skouriotissa), Algeria |
| tin (cassiterite) | Cornwall (Ictis), France (Ploermel), Spain (Laza), Germany (Erzgebirge), Tuscany (Mte Rombolo & Valerio), Dalmatia (Mt Cer), Turkey (Uludag near Bursa, Bakla Tepe NW of Ephesos, Mersin area: Kestel/Göltepe mines)? Syria (from NW Iran & Afghanistan/Bactria)? |
| lead | Britain (Charterhouse, Cornwall), Aquitaine, Spain (Galicia, Palazuelos, Diogenes, Cartagena, Linares), Sardinia (Iglesiente, Domusnovas), Algeria (Arksib, Denaïra), Dalmatia (Srebrenica), Attica (Laurion), Turkey (Mersin area) |
| iron | Britain (Sussex, Cornwall, Great Doward), Aquitaine, Galicia, Algeria, Elba, Dalmatia, Attica (Laurion), Trabzon, Cyprus (Mitsero) |
| raw glass | Egypt (wadi Natrun, Taposiris), Israel (near Dor), and potential places in Italy (beach Piombino-Follonica, beach Policoro-Metaponto, beaches Brindisi-Torre Rinalda), in Spain (outlet of R Guadiana, beach of Aguilas near Cartagena), and in France (Bay of Hyeres) |
| Timber: | |
| cedar | Phoenicia (Byblos) |
| papyrus | Egypt (via Byblos) |
| Ceramics, terracotta: | |
| tiles (tegulae-imbrices) | export only |
| bricks | export only |
| oil lamps | Tunisia (Carthage) |
| Edibles: | |
| wheat | Alexandria, Tunisia, Sicily |
| wine | Greece, Gaul (Rhone valley, Bordeaux), Spain (Tarraconensis, Baetica), Tunisia (Carthage), Levant (Byblos, Gaza), Cyprus, Crete, Aegean (Skopelos, Chios, Samos, Naxos, Thera), Sardinia? Black Sea, Dalmatia, Istria |
| defrutum, siraion, epsima (reduced fruit must) | Baetica, Cyprus? |
| garum, liquamen (fish sauce) & salsamenta, tarichos (salted fish) |
Baetica (Cadix, Cartagena), Lusitania (Lisbon, Troia), Morocco (Lixus, Cotta), Tunisia (Carthage, Nabeul), Gaul (Mareille, Antibes), Libya (Leptis Magna), Black Sea (Crimea, Bithynia) |
| olive oil | Istria, Dalmatia, Sicily, Sardinia, Attica, Samos, Turkey (Ionia, Cilicia), Cyprus, Crete, Levant (Syria, Phoenicia, Canaan), Cyrenaica, North Africa (Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco), Baetica (Cadix) |
| pepper | India (Muziris on Malabar coast) |
| cinnamon malabathrum |
India (by sea via Socotra, and overland via Syria) |
| Luxuries: | |
| ivory | Punt (Red Sea), India |
| perls | Red Sea, Persian Gulf |
| fashioned glass | Dalmatia (Zadar), Germany (Trier), Phoenicia (Sidon), Alexandria |
| silk & cotton | Kos, China & India (via Alexandria, Carthage?) |
| linen | Spain (Xativa) |
| purple dye | Lesbos, Rhodes, Phoenicia (Tyre, Sarepta, Sidon), Tunisia (Jerba, Kerkouane, Carthage), Sicily (Motya), Morocco (Essaouira) |
| frankincense (& myrrh) |
Punt (Red Sea), Somalia (Heis, Antara), Oman (Salalah) |
| perfume | Alexandria, Cyprus (Kato Pyrgos) |
| ebony, hbony | Punt (Red Sea), Nubia |
| amber | Baltic (overland/rivers to Olbia-Borysthenes, to Hatria & Aquileia, to Marseille) |
| Art: | |
| bronze artwork | Greece |
| marble artwork | Greece |
| terra sigillata, African Red Slip, fineware | Greece (Attic), Tunisia (Sidi Bouzid area) |
| Humans: | |
| slaves | Delos i.a. |
We can summarise this solution per nation :
Read more: Australia Maritime Strategy
| Exporting country | Goods imported by Romans |
| Baltic | amber |
| GB & Ireland | metals |
| Lusitania & Baetica | metals, olive oil, garum, wine, defrutum |
| Cartagena | metals, linen |
| Tarraco | metals from Galicia, marble, wine |
| Gaul (Narbo, Massalia) | metals from UK & Germany, glass from Germany, amber from Baltic, wine, garum |
| Tuscany & Elba | metals, marble |
| Sicily & Lipari | wheat, obsidian, olive oil, purple dye |
| Hatria & Aquileia | amber from Baltic |
| Istria & Dalmatia | metals, olive oil, wine, fashioned glass |
| Greece | silver & copper at Laurion, marble, olive oil, wine, bronze & marble artwork, ceramics |
| Thrace | metals |
| Dacia (Transylvania) | metals |
| Borysthenes & Crimea & Tanais | wheat, garum, amber from Baltic |
| Georgia (R Phase) | gold |
| Anatolia (Trabzon, Nicomedia, Ephesos, Attaleia, Mersin) | metals, obsidian, olive oil |
| Marmara Sea | marble |
| Thasos | metals |
| Lesbos | purple dye |
| Peparethos (Skopelos) | wine |
| Chios | wine |
| Keos (Kea) | silver, lead |
| Delos | slaves |
| Naxos | marble, silver, lead, wine |
| Koufonisia | silver, lead |
| Paros | copper |
| Siphnos | gold, silver, lead (exhausted in Roman times) |
| Milos | obsidian |
| Samos | olive oil, wine |
| Thera (Santorini) | wine |
| Rhodes | purple dye |
| Crete | olive oil, wine |
| Cyprus | metals, olive oil, wine, perfume |
| Cilicia (Mersin) | metals |
| Syria (NW Iran & Afghan./Bactria) | tin, lapis lazuli |
| Levant | timber, metals, raw glass & fashioned glass, purple dye, olive oil, wine at Gaza, gems & perls & spices from Red Sea & Gulf/India |
| Egypt & Sinai | wheat, papyrus, metals & ebony from Nubia, gems, glass, ivory & silk & cotton & incense & spices from Red Sea/India |
| Libya | garum at Leptis Magna, olive oil in Cyrenaica |
| Tunisia | wheat, olive oil, garum, wine, purple dye, ceramics |
| Sardinia | silver, obsidian, olive oil |
| Algeria | metals, olive oil |
| Morocco | garum, olive oil, purple dye |
These tables are probably incomplete. Please avail !
exchangeable studies can be conducted for other cultures : Greeks, Phoenicians, Egyptians, Mycenaeans, Minoans, etc. Results are provided in the forty table .
recognize that this resultant role includes only chief imports, i.e. goods needed by the peoples for their own consumption, but does not take into report imports aimed at being re-exported, possibly after some fabrication. Hence, this is alone a first gradation towards a better sympathy of ancient deal networks .
further to the above-mentioned overview of ancient trades, the following hub might be defined :
Trade networks in the Roman Mediterranean Sea: Black dots are main hubs: Rome, Alexandria, Carthage, Gades; Red dots are regional hubs.
In addition to the four main hub, the above surveil of Roman imports provides a serial of ‘ regional hub ’, including Carthago Nova, Tarraco [ 5 ], Narbo [ 6 ], Arelate [ 7 ], Puteoli, Syracusa, Aquileia, Athens, Byzantium, Tomis, Crimea, the Tanaïs river area, Nicomedia [ 8 ], Ephesus, Rhodes, Attaleia [ 9 ], Cyprus, Antioch ad Orontem/Seleucia Pieria, Gaza ( if it was more than a place of theodolite such as Myos Hormos and Berenike ), Apollonia of Cyrene, Caesarea Mauretania, Lixus .
In addition to indian places such as Muziris ( Pattanam, north of Cochin ), lesser known places such as Omana ( possibly located at al-Dur, ed-Dur, in Umm al-Quwain Emirate ) and Tylos ( Bahrain ) should be mentioned here excessively, in order not to under-estimate ancient traffic in the Gulf to Palmyra and Antioch [ 11 ] .
A pattern of imbricate networks could be refined about indefinitely as each regional hub may have its own trade with its backwoods and other nearby smaller ports. Like a fractal that exhibits a repetition design displayed at every scale .
Some trade routes
Sailing from cape to cape ( cabotage ) is the most obvious road for any mariner, except for those sailing a direct path on offshore waters .
| Goods | Routes |
| Amber from Baltic | R Daugava, R Dniepr, Borysthenes, Bosphorus |
| R Vistula & R Oder, R Morava, Carnuntum (near Vienna), R Danube, Bosphorus | |
| R Vistula & R Oder, R Morava, Carnuntum (near Vienna), Aquileia, Adriatic, Delphi & Corinth & Mycenae, Crete, Levant & Egypt & Cyrene | |
| R Elbe, Prague, Brenner pass, Aquileia, Adriatic, Delphi & Corinth & Mycenae, Crete, Levant & Egypt & Cyrene | |
| R Rhine, Basilia (Basel), R Doubs/Saône/Rhône, Massalia (NB: Basel has same Latin name as Samland: coïncidence? Ships from Samland arrived at Basel …) | |
| R Rhine, R Danube, Bosphorus | |
| Tin from GB | Ictis, La Coruna, Gades |
| Ictis, Burdigala, Narbo | |
| Ictis (?), R Seine (?), R Saône/Rhône, Massalia | |
| Tin from Armorica | Poërmel, R Oust, R Villaine, Pénestin (?), Burdigala, Narbo |
| Tin from Galicia | Laza, R Ebro, Tarraco |
| Laza, R Sil, R Mino, Ourense, Gibraltar | |
| Tin from Anatolia | Uludag near Bursa, Bakla Tepe NW of Ephesos, Mersin area: Kestel/Göltepe mines, Anchialeia, Rhodes & Levant |
| Tin from NW Iran | Antioch, Rhodes & Levant |
| Incense from Dhofar | Moscha area (Salalah), Shabwa, Najran, Mecca, Medina, Petra, Gaza (100% overland) |
| Moscha area (Salalah), Qana, Leuke Kome (al-Wajh?), Hegra (Mada’in Saleh), Petra, Gaza (25% overland) | |
| Moscha area (Salalah), Qana, Berenike or Myos Hormos, Coptos, Alexandria (25% overland/river) | |
| Moscha area (Salalah), Hormuz, Babylon, Antioch (35% overland/river) | |
| Incense from Somalia | Mundus-Mosylium area (Heis-Antara), Nubia, Coptos, Alexandria (100% overland/river) |
| Mundus-Mosylium area (Heis-Antara), Berenike or Myos Hormos, Coptos, Alexandria (30% overland/river) |
Notes
[ 1 ] ARNAUD, P., 2012, “ La thousand, vecteur des mobilités grecques ”, in “ Mobilités grecques ”, Capdetrey & Zurbach ( edt. ), Scripta Antiqua 46, Ausonius, Bordeaux, ( p 89-135 ) .
[ 2 ] DUCRUET, C., 2015, “ Inside the pond : an analysis of Northeast Asia ’ s long-run nautical dynamics ”, International Journal of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries, Korea Maritime Institute, 2015, 7 ( 2 ), pp.25-40 .
[ 3 ] ARNAUD, P., 2015c, “ La batellerie de fret nilotique d ’ après la software documentation papyrologique ( 300 avant J.-C.-400 après J.-C. ) ”, in La batellerie égyptienne, Archéologie, histoire, ethnographie, éd. P. Pomey, Centre d ’ Etudes Alexandrines, 34 – 2015 : Kerkouros-type ships were sailing and rowing south on the Nile in winter time, at least during the Hellenistic period .
[ 4 ] BRAUDEL, F., 1949, “ La Méditerranée et lupus erythematosus monde méditerranéen à fifty ’ époque de Philippe II ”, éd. Armand Colin, Paris, ( 533 p ) : he distinguishes versatile basins : “ La Méditerranée n ’ est dad une thousand, mais une sequence de plaines liquides communiquant entre elles par des portes plus ou moins larges. ” Each basin is the consequence of human cultures superimposed upon physical constraints, with continuous changes constantly going on.
See besides : ARNAUD, P., 2005, “ Les routes de la seafaring antique ”, éd. Errance, Paris, ( 248 phosphorus ),
and : STONE, D., 2014, “ Africa in the Roman conglomerate : connectivity, the Economy and Artificial Port Structures ”, American Journal of Archaeology, 118 ( 4 ), ( p 565-600 ) .
[ 5 ] Tarraco may have been the exporting position for metals from the north-western Tarraconensis ( Galicia ) .
[ 6 ] Narbo may have been a space of transit of metals from Great Britain sailing to Burdigala .
[ 7 ] Arelate may have been a stead of theodolite for goods originating in northern Europe .
[ 8 ] Byzantion and Nicomedia were both ancient greek cities, but they were on each side of the Bosphorus, on unlike continents : Thracia on the western side, was rather unexploited, and Asia Minor on the southern side, was highly train since many centuries. Nicomedia was a major Roman city in the 2nd and 3rd c. AD, while Byzantium was reconstructing after Septimus Severus ’ destructions in 195 AD and ultimately heading for becoming a capital city when renamed Constantinopolis angstrom belated as 330 AD.
Read more: How Maritime Law Works
[ 9 ] Pergé was region of the Roman Empire since 188 BC and was the capital city of Pamphylia. It had its own river port some 16 km from the ocean, but the seaport of Attaleia could be used when the seashore was dislodge of pirates .
[ 10 ] RICE, C., 2016, “ Shipwreck cargoes in the western Mediterranean and the organization of Roman maritime craft ”, Journal of Roman Archaeology, 29.
RICE, C., 2011, “ Ceramic assemblages and ports ”, in Maritime Archaeology and Ancient Trade in the Mediterranean, edt. D. Robinson & A. Wilson, Oxford Centre for Maritime Archaeology Monographs.
BOETTO, G., 2012, “ Les épaves comme sources pour liter ’ étude de la navigation et des routes commerciales :
une approche méthodologique ”, in : Rome, Portus and the Mediterranean, edt. S. Keay, british School at Rome, Oxbow Books .
[ 11 ] SCHÖRLE, K., 2017, “ Palmyrene merchant networks and economic consolidation in competitive markets ”, in “ Sinews of Empire ”, erectile dysfunction. Teigen & Seland, Oxbow Books, ( p 147-154 ) .
